2017-06-09 08:59:25 +00:00
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#LyX 2.2 created this file. For more info see http://www.lyx.org/
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\begin_document
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\begin_header
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\textclass article
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2017-06-09 09:48:05 +00:00
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\begin_modules
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algorithm2e
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theorems-ams
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theorems-ams-extended
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\end_modules
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2017-06-09 08:59:25 +00:00
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2017-06-09 08:59:25 +00:00
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2017-06-09 08:59:25 +00:00
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\end_header
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\begin_body
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2017-06-09 09:48:05 +00:00
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\begin_layout Section
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Løsninger og mindste kvadraters løsninger til lineære ligningssystemer
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Subsection
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Lemma 1.5 (Hovedsætning)
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Standard
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Et lineært ligningssystem
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\begin_inset Formula $L^{\prime}$
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\end_inset
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fremkommer fra et andet ligningssystem
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\begin_inset Formula $L$
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\end_inset
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ved brug af ERO, er de to ligningssystemer ækvivalente.
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Standard
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Beviset for dette er for én elementær rækkeoperation.
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Dette er tilstrækkeligt da beviset kan anvendes gentagne gange ved udførslen
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af flere ERO'er.
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Paragraph
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Bevis
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Standard
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Det bemærkes at en løsning til
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\begin_inset Formula $L$
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\end_inset
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også vil være en løsning til
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\begin_inset Formula
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\[
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\alpha\cdot l_{i}
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\]
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\end_inset
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og
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\begin_inset Formula
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\[
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l_{i}+\alpha\cdot l_{j}.
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\]
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\end_inset
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Løsningsmængden for
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\begin_inset Formula $L$
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\end_inset
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vil være en delmængde af løsningsmængden for
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\begin_inset Formula $L^{\prime}$
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\end_inset
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.
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Et symmetrisk argument gælder for
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\begin_inset Formula $L^{\prime}$
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\end_inset
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til
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\begin_inset Formula $L$
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\end_inset
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.
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Derfor må løsningsmængderne være ens.
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Subsection
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Proposition 1.14 –
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\begin_inset Quotes ald
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\end_inset
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Et vigtigt resultat
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\begin_inset Quotes ard
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\end_inset
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Standard
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Et homogent lineært ligningssystem med flere ubekendte end ligninger (dvs.
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på matrixform: flere søjler end rækker) har en løsning forskellig fra
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\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{0}$
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\end_inset
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.
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Paragraph
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Bevis
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Standard
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Hvis der anvendes Gauss-elimination kan det antages at de homogene lineære
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ligningssystem er
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\emph on
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reduceret
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\emph default
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.
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Da antallet af
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\emph on
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ledende ubekendte
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\emph default
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er mindre end eller lig antallet af ligninger
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\begin_inset Formula $m$
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\end_inset
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, vil der være mindst
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\begin_inset Formula $n-m$
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\end_inset
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frie ubekendte.
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Da det er antaget at
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\begin_inset Formula $m<n$
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\end_inset
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vil antallet af frie ubekendte være mindst én.
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Proposition 1.9 fortæller at der eksisterer løsninger til ligningssystemer,
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der antager arbitrære værdier for de frie ubekendte.
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Således eksisterer der helt sikkert en løsning forskellig fra
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\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{0}$
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\end_inset
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.
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Subsection
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2017-06-09 10:37:20 +00:00
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Proposition 3.11 (Hovedsætning for
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\emph on
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løsninger til lineære ligningssystemer
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\emph default
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)
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Standard
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Det antages at en vektor
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\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{z}_{0}\in\mathbb{F}^{n}$
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\end_inset
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er en løsning til det lineære ligningssystem
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\begin_inset Formula $A\cdot\boldsymbol{x}=\boldsymbol{b}$
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\end_inset
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og at
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\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{z}\in\mathbb{F}^{n}$
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\end_inset
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er en løsning til det tilsvarende homogene ligningssystem
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\begin_inset Formula $A\cdot\boldsymbol{x}=\boldsymbol{0}$
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\end_inset
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.
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Løsningsmængden til ligningssystemet vil da bestå af alle elementer på
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formen
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\begin_inset Formula
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\[
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\boldsymbol{z}+\boldsymbol{z_{0}}\in\mathbb{F}^{n},
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\]
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\end_inset
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for
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\begin_inset Formula $A\in{\rm Mat}_{m,n}(\mathbb{F})$
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\end_inset
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og
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\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{b}\in\mathbb{F}^{n}$
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\end_inset
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.
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Paragraph
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Bevis
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Standard
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Beviset deles op i to tilfælde:
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Enumerate
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\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{z}+\boldsymbol{z_{0}}\in\mathbb{F}^{n}$
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\end_inset
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er en løsning til det lineære ligningssystem
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Enumerate
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Enhver løsning
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\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{z}^{\prime}$
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\end_inset
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vil kunne opskrives på formen
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\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{z}+\boldsymbol{z_{0}}$
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\end_inset
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Standard
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(1) Det ses at
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\begin_inset Formula
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\begin{align*}
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A\cdot(\boldsymbol{z}+\boldsymbol{z_{0}}) & =A\cdot\boldsymbol{z}+A\cdot\boldsymbol{z_{0}}\\
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& =\boldsymbol{0}+\boldsymbol{b}\\
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& =\boldsymbol{b}
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\end{align*}
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\end_inset
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Standard
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(2) En løsning
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\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{z}^{\prime}$
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\end_inset
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til
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\begin_inset Formula $A\cdot\boldsymbol{x}=\boldsymbol{b}$
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\end_inset
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opfylder
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\begin_inset Formula
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\begin{align*}
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A\cdot(\boldsymbol{z}^{\prime}-\boldsymbol{z}_{0}) & =A\cdot\boldsymbol{z}^{\prime}-A\cdot\boldsymbol{z_{0}}\\
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& =\boldsymbol{b}-\boldsymbol{b}\\
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& =\boldsymbol{0}
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\end{align*}
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\end_inset
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Derfor må
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\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{z}^{\prime}-\boldsymbol{z}_{0}$
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\end_inset
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være en løsning til det homogene lineære ligningssystem
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\begin_inset Formula $A\cdot\boldsymbol{x}=\boldsymbol{0}$
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\end_inset
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.
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Det vil sige at
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\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{z}^{\prime}-\boldsymbol{z}_{0}=\boldsymbol{z}$
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\end_inset
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, og
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\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{z}^{\prime}$
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\end_inset
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har den ønskede form.
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Subsection
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2017-06-09 10:37:20 +00:00
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Proposition 10.33 (Hovedsætning for
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\emph on
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mindste kvadraters løsninger
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\emph default
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)
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2017-06-09 09:48:05 +00:00
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Standard
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Ethvert lineært ligningssystem har
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\emph on
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mindst én
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|
|
\emph default
|
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|
|
|
|
|
|
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|
\emph on
|
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|
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|
mindste kvadraters løsning
|
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|
|
\emph default
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
Mindste kvadraters løsninger til
|
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A\cdot\boldsymbol{x}=\boldsymbol{b}$
|
|
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|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
bestemmes som løsningsmængden til det lineære ligningssystem
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
A\cdot\boldsymbol{x}=\boldsymbol{p}
|
|
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|
|
\]
|
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|
\end_inset
|
|
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hvor
|
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\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{p}$
|
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\end_inset
|
|
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betegner den ortogonale projektion af
|
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{b}$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
|
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på søjlerummet
|
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\begin_inset Formula $R(A)$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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, det vil sige at
|
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\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{p}\in R(A)$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
|
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|
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, mens
|
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\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{b}\not\in R(A)$
|
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\end_inset
|
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.
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Ligningssystemet har altså
|
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\emph on
|
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|
ikke
|
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|
\emph default
|
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en
|
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\begin_inset Quotes ald
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\end_inset
|
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ordinær
|
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\begin_inset Quotes ard
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\end_inset
|
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løsning.
|
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|
\end_layout
|
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|
2017-06-09 10:37:20 +00:00
|
|
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|
\begin_layout Paragraph
|
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|
Bevis
|
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|
\end_layout
|
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\begin_layout Standard
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{p}$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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er pr.
|
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definition indeholdt i
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $R(A)$
|
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\end_inset
|
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.
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Det gælder jf.
|
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|
Proposition 10.32 for alle andre
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $A\cdot\boldsymbol{z}\in R(A)$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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at
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
\left\Vert \boldsymbol{b}-A\cdot\boldsymbol{z}\right\Vert \geq\left\Vert \boldsymbol{b}-\boldsymbol{p}\right\Vert
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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med lighedstegn netop når
|
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $A\cdot\boldsymbol{z}=\boldsymbol{p}$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
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|
Dette viser at mindste kvadraters løsninger til
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A\cdot\boldsymbol{x}=\boldsymbol{b}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
bestemmes som løsningerne til
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A\cdot\boldsymbol{x}=\boldsymbol{p}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
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|
|
\end_layout
|
|
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|
|
|
2017-06-09 09:48:05 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Subsubsection
|
|
|
|
|
Hjælpesætning - Proposition 10.32
|
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|
|
\end_layout
|
|
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|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Formula $W$
|
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|
|
\end_inset
|
|
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|
er et underrum af et indre produkt rum
|
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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.
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}\in V$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
|
,
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{p}=W$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
|
|
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|
|
,
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{h}=W^{\perp}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
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|
|
|
.
|
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|
Det gælder da at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
\boldsymbol{v}=\boldsymbol{p}+\boldsymbol{h}
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
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|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
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|
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|
|
og
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
\left\Vert \boldsymbol{v}-\boldsymbol{p}\right\Vert <\left\Vert \boldsymbol{v}-\boldsymbol{w}\right\Vert
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
for alle
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w}\in W\setminus\{\boldsymbol{p}\}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-09 10:37:20 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Subsection
|
|
|
|
|
Noter
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Proposition 10.36 er også nævnt i dispositionerne.
|
|
|
|
|
Der er dog nok ikke tid til også at gennemgå denne til eksamen.
|
|
|
|
|
Studerende til eksamen: Hvor meget tid har de? Har de tid? Lad os finde
|
|
|
|
|
ud af det! Skal den med? IDK!
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Newpage newpage
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Section
|
|
|
|
|
Invertible matricer
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Subsection
|
|
|
|
|
Lemma 4.3 (Målsætning uden bevis)
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Antag at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A\in{\rm Mat}_{n}(\mathbb{F})$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er en invertibel matrix og
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{b}\in\mathbb{F}^{n}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Da vil ligningssystemet
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A\cdot\boldsymbol{x}=\boldsymbol{b}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
have præcis én løsning.
|
|
|
|
|
Denne vil være lig
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A^{-1}\cdot\boldsymbol{b}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Subsection
|
|
|
|
|
Lemma 4.4 (Hovedsætning)
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Antag
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A\in{\rm Mat}_{n}(\mathbb{F})$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
(OBS!
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er kvadratisk!) og lad
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $H$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
bestemme en matrix på
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $RREF$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, der er rækkeækvivalent med
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
Følgende udsagn er da ækvivalente
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Enumerate
|
|
|
|
|
For enhver vektor
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{b}\in\mathbb{F}^{n}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
vil det lineære ligningssystem
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A\cdot\boldsymbol{x}=\boldsymbol{b}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
udelukkende have præcis én løsning.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Enumerate
|
|
|
|
|
Det homogene lineære liningssystem
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A\cdot\boldsymbol{x}=\boldsymbol{0}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
har kun nulvektoren
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{0}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
som løsning.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Enumerate
|
|
|
|
|
Det homogene (fuldstændigt) reducerede ligningssystem
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $H\cdot\boldsymbol{x}=\boldsymbol{0}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
har
|
|
|
|
|
\emph on
|
|
|
|
|
ingen frie ubekendte.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Enumerate
|
|
|
|
|
Matricen
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $H$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er lig identitetsmatricen
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula ${\rm I}_{n}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-09 09:48:05 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Paragraph
|
|
|
|
|
Bevis
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-09 08:59:25 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
2017-06-09 10:37:20 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $(1)\Rightarrow(2)$
|
2017-06-09 09:48:05 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-09 10:37:20 +00:00
|
|
|
|
: Oplagt, da nulvektoren
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{0}$
|
2017-06-09 09:48:05 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-09 10:37:20 +00:00
|
|
|
|
er en løsning til ethvert homogent ligningssystem.
|
|
|
|
|
(1) giver da at dette må være den éneste løsning.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $(2)\Rightarrow(3)$
|
2017-06-09 09:48:05 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-09 10:37:20 +00:00
|
|
|
|
: Da de to ligningssystemer
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A\cdot\boldsymbol{x}=\boldsymbol{0}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
og
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $H\cdot\boldsymbol{x}=\boldsymbol{0}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er ækvivalente har de samme løsningsmængde.
|
|
|
|
|
Hvis
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $(2)$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er opfyldt har
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $H\cdot\boldsymbol{x}=\boldsymbol{0}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
præcis én løsning, hvilket giver at der ikke er frie variable i ligningssysteme
|
|
|
|
|
t.
|
|
|
|
|
Dette opfylder jf.
|
|
|
|
|
Proposition 1.9 (ingen frie variable ved antal pivoter svarende til antal
|
|
|
|
|
ligninger (RREF i matrix-speak)) (3) ud fra (2).
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $(3)\Rightarrow(4)$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
: Da
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $H$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er på RREF, så må der eksistere en følge af naturlige tal
|
2017-06-09 09:48:05 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
2017-06-09 10:37:20 +00:00
|
|
|
|
1\leq d_{1}<d_{2}<\cdots<d_{r}\leq n,
|
2017-06-09 09:48:05 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
2017-06-09 08:59:25 +00:00
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-09 10:37:20 +00:00
|
|
|
|
hvor
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $r$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er antallet af pivoter, såleds at de krævede egenskaber for RREF er opfyldt.
|
|
|
|
|
Den
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $(i,j)$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
'te indgang i
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $H$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
betegns med
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $h_{i,j}$
|
2017-06-09 09:48:05 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
2017-06-09 10:37:20 +00:00
|
|
|
|
Da har vi specielt, at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
h_{i,d_{j}=}\begin{cases}
|
|
|
|
|
1 & {\rm hvis}\quad i=j,j\leq r\\
|
|
|
|
|
0 & {\rm hvis}\quad i\neq j,j\leq r
|
|
|
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|
\end{cases}.
|
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\]
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\end_inset
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(
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\emph on
|
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Nævn eventuelt Kroeneckers delta i relation til dette)
|
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\end_layout
|
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\begin_layout Standard
|
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Det er givet at
|
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\begin_inset Formula $x_{d_{1}},x_{d_{2}},\dots,x_{d_{r}}$
|
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\end_inset
|
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er de ledende ubekendte for det lineære ligningssystem
|
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\begin_inset Formula $H\cdot\boldsymbol{x}=\boldsymbol{0}$
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\end_inset
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.
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Da der ikke er frie ubekendte for
|
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\begin_inset Formula $H\cdot\boldsymbol{x}=\boldsymbol{0}$
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\end_inset
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jf.
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(3), så må
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\begin_inset Formula $r=n$
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\end_inset
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og
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\begin_inset Formula $d_{i}=i$
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\end_inset
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for
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\begin_inset Formula $i=1,2,\dots,n$
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\end_inset
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.
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Dermed giver ovenstående at
|
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\begin_inset Formula $H$
|
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\end_inset
|
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er identitetsmatricen
|
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\begin_inset Formula ${\rm I}_{n}$
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\end_inset
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.
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Standard
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\begin_inset Formula $(4)\Rightarrow(1)$
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\end_inset
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: Hvis (4) er opfyldt vil totalmatricen
|
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\begin_inset Formula $(A\mid\boldsymbol{b})$
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\end_inset
|
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(dvs.
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for systemet
|
2017-06-09 09:48:05 +00:00
|
|
|
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\begin_inset Formula $A\cdot\boldsymbol{x}=\boldsymbol{b}$
|
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\end_inset
|
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|
2017-06-09 10:37:20 +00:00
|
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|
) være rækkeækvivalent med
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $({\rm I}_{n}\mid\boldsymbol{c})$
|
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\end_inset
|
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for en passende vektor
|
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\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{c}\in\mathbb{F}^{n}$
|
2017-06-09 09:48:05 +00:00
|
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\end_inset
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.
|
2017-06-09 10:37:20 +00:00
|
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Særligt vil løsningsmængderne for
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $A\cdot\boldsymbol{x}=\boldsymbol{b}$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
og
|
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\begin_inset Formula $I_{n}\cdot\boldsymbol{x}=\boldsymbol{c}$
|
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\end_inset
|
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være identiske.
|
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\begin_inset Formula ${\rm I}_{n}\cdot\boldsymbol{x}=\boldsymbol{c}$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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har imidlertid kun løsningen
|
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\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{c}$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
, hvilket opfylder (1) (præcis én løsning).
|
2017-06-09 09:48:05 +00:00
|
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|
\end_layout
|
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|
\begin_layout Subsection
|
2017-06-09 10:37:20 +00:00
|
|
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|
Lemma 4.5 (Leder op til 4.6, perspektiv uden bevis)
|
2017-06-09 09:48:05 +00:00
|
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|
\end_layout
|
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|
\begin_layout Standard
|
2017-06-09 10:37:20 +00:00
|
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|
For en kvadratisk matrix
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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, der opfylder et af de fire udsagn i Lemma 4.4, vil der eksistere en kvadratisk
|
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matrix
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $B$
|
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\end_inset
|
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|
af samme størrelse som
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $A$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
, således at
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $A\cdot B={\rm I}_{n}$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
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.
|
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|
\end_layout
|
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|
\begin_layout Subsection
|
|
|
|
|
Lemma 4.6 (Vigtig konklusion)
|
|
|
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|
\end_layout
|
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|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
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|
|
En kvadratisk matrix
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A$
|
|
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
er invertibel hvis og kun hvis
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
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|
|
opfylder de ækvivalente udsagn i Lemma 4.4.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
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|
|
\begin_layout Paragraph
|
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|
|
Bevis
|
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|
\end_layout
|
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|
\begin_layout Standard
|
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|
|
|
Først vises at en invertibel matrix opfylder udsagnene i Lemma 4.4: Lemma
|
|
|
|
|
4.3 giver at en invertibel matrix vil opfylde udsagn (1) i Lemma 4.4.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
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|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
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|
|
Det ønskes nu at vise at en matrix, der opfylder udsagnene i Lemma 4.4 er
|
|
|
|
|
invertibel: Det antages, at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A$
|
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|
|
\end_inset
|
|
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|
|
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|
|
opfylder udsagnene i Lemma 4.4.
|
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|
|
Ifølge Lemma 4.5 eksisterer der dermed en kvadratisk matrix af samme størrelse
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $B$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
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|
|
, så
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A\cdot B={\rm I}_{n}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
Det påstås at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $B$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|
|
|
opfylder udsagn
|
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $(2)$
|
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|
|
|
\end_inset
|
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|
i Lemma
|
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|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $4.4$
|
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|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
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|
|
Lad en vektor
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
med
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $n$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
indgange være en løsning til det homogene ligningssystem
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $B\cdot\boldsymbol{x}=\boldsymbol{0}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
Da vil
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\begin{align*}
|
|
|
|
|
\boldsymbol{v} & ={\rm I}_{n}\cdot\boldsymbol{v}\\
|
|
|
|
|
& =(A\cdot B)\cdot\boldsymbol{v}\\
|
|
|
|
|
& =A\cdot(B\cdot\boldsymbol{v})\\
|
|
|
|
|
& =A\cdot\boldsymbol{0}\\
|
|
|
|
|
& =\boldsymbol{0}.
|
|
|
|
|
\end{align*}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Nu kan vi anvende Lemma 4.5 på
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $B$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
og konkludere, at der eksisterer endnu en kvadratisk matrix af samme størrelse
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $C$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, så
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $B\cdot C={\rm I}_{n}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Det ønskes nu at vise at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $C=A$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, hvilket giver at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $B$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er en invers til
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
Dette vises ved
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\begin{align*}
|
|
|
|
|
A & =A\cdot{\rm I}_{n}\\
|
|
|
|
|
& =A\cdot(B\cdot C)\\
|
|
|
|
|
& =(A\cdot B)\cdot C\\
|
|
|
|
|
& ={\rm I}_{n}\cdot C\\
|
|
|
|
|
& =C.
|
|
|
|
|
\end{align*}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Beviset er nu afsluttet.
|
2017-06-09 08:59:25 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-09 13:00:06 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Newpage newpage
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Section
|
|
|
|
|
Vektorrum, underrum og dimension
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Subsection
|
|
|
|
|
Definition 5.1 (Vektorrum)
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
En mængde
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
samt to afbildninger
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{A}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
og
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{S}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, der opfylder identiteterne
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Enumerate
|
|
|
|
|
Den
|
|
|
|
|
\emph on
|
|
|
|
|
kommutative
|
|
|
|
|
\emph default
|
|
|
|
|
lov
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Enumerate
|
|
|
|
|
Den
|
|
|
|
|
\emph on
|
|
|
|
|
associative
|
|
|
|
|
\emph default
|
|
|
|
|
lov
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Enumerate
|
|
|
|
|
Eksistens af
|
|
|
|
|
\emph on
|
|
|
|
|
neutralelement
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Enumerate
|
|
|
|
|
Eksistens af
|
|
|
|
|
\emph on
|
|
|
|
|
inverse
|
|
|
|
|
\emph default
|
|
|
|
|
elementer
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Enumerate
|
|
|
|
|
Distributiv lov 1
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Enumerate
|
|
|
|
|
Distributiv lov 2
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Enumerate
|
|
|
|
|
Associativitet for skalarmultiplikation (
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\alpha\cdot(\beta\cdot\boldsymbol{u})=(\alpha\beta)\cdot\boldsymbol{u}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
)
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Subsection
|
|
|
|
|
Definition 5.7 (Underrum)
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Et underrum af et vektorrum
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er
|
|
|
|
|
\emph on
|
|
|
|
|
en delmængde
|
|
|
|
|
\emph default
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $S$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
af vektorrummet
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, der opfylder følgende betingelser:
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Enumerate
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{0}\in S$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Enumerate
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\forall\boldsymbol{u},\boldsymbol{v}\in S:\quad\boldsymbol{u}+\boldsymbol{v}\in S$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Enumerate
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\forall\boldsymbol{u}\in S,\:\alpha\in\mathbb{F}:\quad\alpha\cdot\boldsymbol{u}\in S$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
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|
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|
\begin_layout Standard
|
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|
Punkt 2 og 3 kaldes
|
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\emph on
|
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|
stabilitet overfor addition
|
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|
\emph default
|
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|
hhv.
|
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|
\emph on
|
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|
multiplikation
|
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|
\emph default
|
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|
\end_layout
|
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|
\begin_layout Subsection
|
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|
|
|
Definition 5.9 (Linearkombination)
|
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|
\end_layout
|
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\begin_layout Standard
|
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En vektor
|
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\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}$
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\end_inset
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i vektorrummet
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\begin_inset Formula $V$
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\end_inset
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kaldes en
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|
\emph on
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linearkombination
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|
\emph default
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af
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\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}_{1},\boldsymbol{v}_{2},\dots,\boldsymbol{v}_{n}$
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\end_inset
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, hvis der eksisterer skalarer
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\begin_inset Formula $\alpha_{1},\alpha_{2},\dots,\alpha_{n}\in\mathbb{F}$
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\end_inset
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, så
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\begin_inset Formula
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|
\[
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|
\boldsymbol{v}=\alpha_{1}\cdot\boldsymbol{v}_{1}+\alpha_{2}\cdot\boldsymbol{v}_{2}+\cdots+\alpha_{n}\cdot\boldsymbol{v}_{n}
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\]
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\end_inset
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og
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\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}\in V$
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\end_inset
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.
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Dette kan oplagt også noteres som
|
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\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v=\sum_{i=1}^{n}}\alpha_{i}\cdot\boldsymbol{v}_{i}$
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\end_inset
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.
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Subsection
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|
Definition 5.11 (Span)
|
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\end_layout
|
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\begin_layout Standard
|
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|
Mængden af alle linearkombination af
|
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\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}_{1},\boldsymbol{v}_{2},\dots,\boldsymbol{v}_{n}$
|
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\end_inset
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kaldes for
|
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|
\emph on
|
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spannet
|
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|
\emph default
|
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|
af elementerne
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}_{1},\boldsymbol{v}_{2},\dots,\boldsymbol{v}_{n}$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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og betegnes med
|
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|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
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|
|
\[
|
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|
|
|
{\rm Span}(\boldsymbol{v}_{1},\boldsymbol{v}_{2},\dots,\boldsymbol{v}_{n})
|
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|
\]
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
Se også Lemma 5.12 for et interessant resultat.
|
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|
\end_layout
|
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\begin_layout Subsection
|
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|
|
|
Definition 5.14 (Dimension)
|
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|
|
\end_layout
|
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|
\begin_layout Standard
|
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|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
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|
|
\end_inset
|
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|
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er et
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathbb{F}$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
-vektorrum.
|
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|
|
Vi definerer da:
|
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|
|
\end_layout
|
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|
|
|
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|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Itemize
|
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|
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|
Hvis
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $V=\{\boldsymbol{0}\}$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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har
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
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|
|
\end_inset
|
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|
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|
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|
dimension
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $0$
|
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\end_inset
|
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|
\end_layout
|
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|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Itemize
|
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|
|
|
Hvis
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
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|
|
\end_inset
|
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|
|
er forskellig fra
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $\{\boldsymbol{0}\}$
|
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|
|
\end_inset
|
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|
og kan udspændes af
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Formula $n$
|
|
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|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
elementer, men ikke af færre end
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $n$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
elementer, så siger vi, at dimensionen af
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er lig
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $n$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Itemize
|
|
|
|
|
Hivs
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
ikke kan udspændes af en endelig mængde, så siges
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
at have uendelig dimension.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Dimensionen af
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
betegnes med
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\dim(V)$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
Uendelig dimension beskrives ved
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\dim(V)=\infty$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Subsection
|
|
|
|
|
Formel 5.25 (Matrixprodukter og linearkombinationer)
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Quotes ald
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Ekstrem vigtig sammenhæng
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Quotes ard
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
mellem linearkombinationer og matrixproduktet.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A=(a_{ij})\in{\rm Mat}_{m,n}(\mathbb{F})$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
Da vil
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\begin{align*}
|
|
|
|
|
A\cdot\begin{pmatrix}\alpha_{1}\\
|
|
|
|
|
\alpha_{2}\\
|
|
|
|
|
\vdots\\
|
|
|
|
|
\alpha_{n}
|
|
|
|
|
\end{pmatrix} & =\begin{pmatrix}a_{11}\alpha_{1}+a_{12}\alpha_{2}+\cdots+a_{1n}\alpha_{n}\\
|
|
|
|
|
a_{21}\alpha_{1}+a_{22}\alpha_{2}+\cdots+a_{2n}\alpha_{n}\\
|
|
|
|
|
\vdots\\
|
|
|
|
|
a_{m1}\alpha_{1}+a_{m2}\alpha_{2}+\cdots+a_{mn}\alpha_{n}
|
|
|
|
|
\end{pmatrix}\\
|
|
|
|
|
& =\alpha_{1}\begin{pmatrix}a_{11}\\
|
|
|
|
|
a_{21}\\
|
|
|
|
|
\vdots\\
|
|
|
|
|
a_{m1}
|
|
|
|
|
\end{pmatrix}+\alpha_{2}\begin{pmatrix}a_{12}\\
|
|
|
|
|
a_{22}\\
|
|
|
|
|
\vdots\\
|
|
|
|
|
a_{m2}
|
|
|
|
|
\end{pmatrix}+\cdots+\alpha_{n}\begin{pmatrix}a_{1n}\\
|
|
|
|
|
a_{2n}\\
|
|
|
|
|
\vdots\\
|
|
|
|
|
a_{mn}
|
|
|
|
|
\end{pmatrix}\\
|
|
|
|
|
& =\alpha_{1}\cdot\boldsymbol{a}_{1}+\alpha_{2}\cdot\boldsymbol{a}_{2}+\cdots+\alpha_{n}\cdot\boldsymbol{a}_{n}
|
|
|
|
|
\end{align*}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Dette giver også at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
{\rm Span}(\boldsymbol{a_{1},a_{2},\dots,a_{n}})=\{A\cdot\boldsymbol{v}\mid\boldsymbol{v}\in\mathbb{F}^{n}\}.
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Subsection
|
|
|
|
|
Proposition 5.17 (Vektorrum)
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Dimensionen af
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathbb{F}^{n}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $n$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Paragraph
|
|
|
|
|
Bevis
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Det er allerede bemærket at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathbb{F}^{n}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
kan udspændes af
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $n$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
elementer
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $(\boldsymbol{e}_{1},\boldsymbol{e}_{2},\dots,\boldsymbol{e}_{n})$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
Det ønskes derfor kun vist at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathbb{F}^{n}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
ikke kan udspændes af
|
|
|
|
|
\emph on
|
|
|
|
|
færre end
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $n$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
elementer.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Det antages at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathbb{F}^{n}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
udspændes af
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $m$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
elementer
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{a_{1},a_{2},\dots,a_{m}}\in\mathbb{F}^{n}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, dvs.
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
{\rm Span}(\boldsymbol{a_{1},a_{2},\dots,a_{m}})=\mathbb{F}^{n}
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Lad nu
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A\in{\rm Mat}_{n,m}(\mathbb{F})$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
beskrive matricen, hvis
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $i$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
'te søjle er givet ved
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{a}_{i}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
Da vil ligningssystemet
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A\cdot\boldsymbol{x}=\boldsymbol{b}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
have en løsning for ethvert
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{b}\in\mathbb{F}^{n}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, grundet Lemma 5.16 samholdt med ovenstående.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Vi lader nu
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{e}_{i}\in\mathbb{F}^{n}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
betegne den
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $i$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
'te søjle i
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $I_{n}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
og
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{b}_{i}\in\mathbb{F}^{m}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $i=[1,n]$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
være en løsning til ligningssystemet
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A\cdot\boldsymbol{x}=\boldsymbol{e}_{i}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
Lad endvidere
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $B\in{\rm Mat}_{m,n}(\mathbb{F})$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
betegne matricen hvis
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $i$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
'te søjle er
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{b}_{i}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $i=[1,n]$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
Da gælder der at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\begin{align*}
|
|
|
|
|
A\cdot B & =\left(A\cdot\boldsymbol{b}_{1}\mid A\cdot\boldsymbol{b}_{2}\mid\cdots\mid A\cdot\boldsymbol{b}_{n}\right)\\
|
|
|
|
|
& =\left(\boldsymbol{e}_{1}\mid\boldsymbol{e}_{2}\mid\cdots\mid\boldsymbol{e}_{n}\right)\\
|
|
|
|
|
& =I_{n}.
|
|
|
|
|
\end{align*}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Det homogene ligningssystem
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $B\cdot\boldsymbol{x}=\boldsymbol{0}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
har kun har nulvektoren som løsning, da
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $B$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er invertibel samholdt med Lemma 4.4 og 4.6.
|
|
|
|
|
Proposition 1.14 implicerer da at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $m\geq n$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, hvilket fuldender beviset.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Subsubsection
|
|
|
|
|
Hjælpesætning - Lemma 5.16
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Et lineært ligningssystem
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A\cdot\boldsymbol{x}=\boldsymbol{b}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
har en løsning hvis og kun hvis
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{b}\in R(A)$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Paragraph
|
|
|
|
|
Bevis
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Det at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{b}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er i søjlerummet for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A$
|
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|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
betyder at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{b}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er på formen
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A\cdot\boldsymbol{v}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
for et passende
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}\in\mathbb{F}^{n}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
Dette er netop betingelsen for at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A\cdot\boldsymbol{x}=\boldsymbol{b}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
har en løsning.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Subsection
|
|
|
|
|
Lemma 5.12 (Hvis tid?)
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Mængden
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula ${\rm Span}(\boldsymbol{v}_{1},\boldsymbol{v}_{2},\dots,\boldsymbol{v}_{n})$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
udgør et underrum i
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
indeholdende alle elementerne
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}_{1},\boldsymbol{v}_{2},\dots,\boldsymbol{v}_{n}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
Ethvert underrum af
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
indeholdende
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}_{1},\boldsymbol{v}_{2},\dots,\boldsymbol{v}_{n}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
vil indeholde
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula ${\rm Span}(\boldsymbol{v}_{1},\boldsymbol{v}_{2},\dots,\boldsymbol{v}_{n})$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
som delmængde.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Paragraph
|
|
|
|
|
Meget uformel begrundelse
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Dette er på grund af spannets og underrummets definition.
|
|
|
|
|
Underrum er stabile overfor netop addition og skalarmultiplikation, hvilket
|
|
|
|
|
er det linearkombinationer benytter sig af.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Subsection
|
|
|
|
|
Noter
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Skriv måske mere til Lemma 5.12
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Newpage newpage
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Section
|
|
|
|
|
Basis for vektorrum
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Subsection
|
|
|
|
|
Definition 7.1 (
|
|
|
|
|
\emph on
|
|
|
|
|
Udspænde
|
|
|
|
|
\emph default
|
|
|
|
|
,
|
|
|
|
|
\emph on
|
|
|
|
|
lineær
|
|
|
|
|
\emph default
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\emph on
|
|
|
|
|
uafhængighed
|
|
|
|
|
\emph default
|
|
|
|
|
og
|
|
|
|
|
\emph on
|
|
|
|
|
basis
|
|
|
|
|
\emph default
|
|
|
|
|
)
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
For en samling af elementer
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{V}=(\boldsymbol{v}_{1},\boldsymbol{v}_{2},\dots,\boldsymbol{v}_{n})$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
i et
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathbb{F}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
-vektorrum
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
defineres:
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Itemize
|
|
|
|
|
Udspænding af
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
:
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula ${\rm Span}(\boldsymbol{v}_{1},\boldsymbol{v}_{2},\dots,\boldsymbol{v}_{n})=V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Itemize
|
|
|
|
|
Lineær uafhængighed:
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\begin{pmatrix}\alpha_{1}\\
|
|
|
|
|
\alpha_{2}\\
|
|
|
|
|
\vdots\\
|
|
|
|
|
\alpha_{n}
|
|
|
|
|
\end{pmatrix}\cdot\begin{pmatrix}\vdots & \vdots & & \vdots\\
|
|
|
|
|
\boldsymbol{v}_{1} & \boldsymbol{v}_{2} & \cdots & \boldsymbol{v}_{n}\\
|
|
|
|
|
\vdots & \vdots & & \vdots
|
|
|
|
|
\end{pmatrix}=\boldsymbol{0}\iff\alpha_{i}=0\:{\rm for}\:i=1,2,\dots,n$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Itemize
|
|
|
|
|
Basis for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
såfremt
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{V}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
udspænder
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
samt er lineært uafhængig.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Subsection
|
|
|
|
|
Lemma 7.2 (Relation af samlinger til afbildningsbegreber)
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
For en samling af elementer
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{V}=(\boldsymbol{v}_{1},\boldsymbol{v}_{2},\dots,\boldsymbol{v}_{n})$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
i et
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathbb{F}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
-vektorrum
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-09 18:32:10 +00:00
|
|
|
|
gælder det at
|
2017-06-09 13:00:06 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Enumerate
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{V}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
udspænder
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
hvis og kun hvis
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L_{\mathcal{V}}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er surjektiv
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Enumerate
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{V}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er lineært uafhængig hvis og kun hvis
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L_{\mathcal{V}}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er injektiv
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Enumerate
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{V}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er en basis for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
hvis og kun hvis
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L_{\mathcal{V}}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er en isomorfi
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Dette giver endvidere at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{V}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er en basis for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
netop når ethvert element i
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\emph on
|
|
|
|
|
på entydig vis
|
|
|
|
|
\emph default
|
|
|
|
|
er en linearkombination af vektorerne i
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{V}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Paragraph
|
|
|
|
|
Bevis
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
(1): Billedet af
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L_{\mathcal{V}}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er lig
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula ${\rm Span}(\mathcal{V})$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L_{\mathcal{V}}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er surjektiv hvis og kun hvis
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula ${\rm Span}(\mathcal{V})=V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
(2):
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L_{\mathcal{V}}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er injektiv hvis og kun hvis at kernen for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L_{\mathcal{V}}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er lig
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\{\boldsymbol{0}\}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
jf.
|
|
|
|
|
Sætning 6.14.
|
|
|
|
|
Vektoren
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $(\alpha_{1},\alpha_{2},\dots,\alpha_{n})^{T}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er et element i kernen for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L_{\mathcal{V}}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
hvis og kun hvis identiteten
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\alpha_{1}\cdot\boldsymbol{v}_{1}+\alpha_{2}\cdot\boldsymbol{v}_{2}+\cdots+\alpha_{n}\cdot\boldsymbol{v}_{n}=0$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er opfyldt.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
For at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L_{\mathcal{V}}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
kan være injektiv må identiteten kun være opfyldt hvis alle
|
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\begin_inset Formula $\alpha_{i}=0$
|
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\end_inset
|
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|
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, hvilket netop er definitionen på, at
|
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\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{V}$
|
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\end_inset
|
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er lineært uafhængig.
|
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\end_layout
|
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\begin_layout Standard
|
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(3): Følger af (1) og (2), da isomorfi kræver samtidig surjektivitet og
|
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injektivitet ligesom basis kræver samtidig udspænding (surjektivitet) og
|
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lineær uafhængighed (injektivitet).
|
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\end_layout
|
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\begin_layout Subsection
|
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Sætning 7.12 (
|
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\emph on
|
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Udtynding
|
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\emph default
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|
og
|
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\emph on
|
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udvidelse
|
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\emph default
|
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)
|
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\end_layout
|
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\begin_layout Standard
|
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\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
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\end_inset
|
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er et vektorrum af endelig dimension
|
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\begin_inset Formula $n>0$
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\end_inset
|
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|
og
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\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W}=(\boldsymbol{v}_{1},\boldsymbol{v}_{2},\dots,\boldsymbol{v}_{m})$
|
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\end_inset
|
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er en samling af
|
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\begin_inset Formula $m$
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\end_inset
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elementer i vektorrummet
|
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\begin_inset Formula $V$
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\end_inset
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.
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Da er to ting mulige:
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\end_layout
|
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\begin_layout Enumerate
|
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Hvis
|
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\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W}$
|
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\end_inset
|
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udspænder
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
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\end_inset
|
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, så er
|
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\begin_inset Formula $n\leq m$
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\end_inset
|
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og
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\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W}$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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kan
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\emph on
|
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udtyndes
|
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|
\emph default
|
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|
til en basis for
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
.
|
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Det vil sige at nogle af vektorerne i
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W}$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
kan
|
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|
\emph on
|
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fjernes
|
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|
\emph default
|
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|
for at gøre
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W}$
|
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|
|
|
\end_inset
|
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|
til en basis for
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
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.
|
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|
\end_layout
|
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|
\begin_layout Enumerate
|
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|
Hvis
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W}$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
er lineært uafhængig, så er
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $m\leq n$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
og
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W}$
|
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\end_inset
|
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|
kan
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|
\emph on
|
2017-06-09 18:32:10 +00:00
|
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|
ud
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|
\emph default
|
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|
koordinattransformationsmatricer
|
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|
|
\emph on
|
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|
vides
|
2017-06-09 13:00:06 +00:00
|
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|
|
\emph default
|
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|
til en basis for
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
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|
|
|
\end_inset
|
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|
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|
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|
.
|
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|
Det vil sige at der kan
|
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|
\emph on
|
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|
tilføjes
|
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|
|
\emph default
|
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|
|
vektorerne fra
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
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|
til
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
for at gøre
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
til en basis for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Paragraph
|
|
|
|
|
Bevis
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Beviset foregår i to dele.
|
|
|
|
|
Først vises udtynding og derefter udvidelse.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Subparagraph
|
|
|
|
|
(1)
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Der argumenteres genmem induktion i
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $m>0$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
Hvis
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $m=1$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, så vil
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W}=(\boldsymbol{v}_{1})$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
pr.
|
|
|
|
|
antagelse udspænde
|
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|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V,$
|
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|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
og da
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
ikke er nulrummet (da
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $n>0$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
) vil
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
være lineært uafhængig (jf.
|
|
|
|
|
Eks 7.6(A)).
|
|
|
|
|
Derfor vil
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
i dette tilfælde være en basis for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
Proposition
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $7.8$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
giver at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $n$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
derved er lig
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $1$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
Derfor kan det anvendes at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{V}=\mathcal{W}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Det antages nu at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $m>1$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
og at udsagnet er vist i tilfældet
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $m-1$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Hvis
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er lineært
|
|
|
|
|
\emph on
|
|
|
|
|
uafhængig
|
|
|
|
|
\emph default
|
|
|
|
|
, så er
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $W$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
en basis og dermed er
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $n=m$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
ifølge Proposition
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $7.8$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Hvis
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er lineært
|
|
|
|
|
\emph on
|
|
|
|
|
afhængig
|
|
|
|
|
\emph default
|
|
|
|
|
, så eksisterer der jf.
|
|
|
|
|
Lemma 7.7(1) et
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $i$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
,
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $1\leq i\leq m$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, så kan en ny samling
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W}^{\prime}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
skabes ud fra
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
ved fjernelse af vektoren
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}_{i}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
ift.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
således at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W}^{\prime}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
udspænder
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Pr.
|
|
|
|
|
induktion kan det nye
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W}^{\prime}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
udtyndes til en basis for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, og denne basis vil også være en udtynding af
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Subparagraph
|
|
|
|
|
(2)
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
At
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $m\leq n$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
følger af Lemma 7.10.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Der argumenteres ved induktion i tallet
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $n-m\geq0$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Hvis
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $n-m=0$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, så er
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
en basis for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
jf.
|
|
|
|
|
Proposition 7.11.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Det antages nu at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $n-m>0$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
og at udsagnet er vist i tilfældet
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $(n-m)-1$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Da
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $m\neq n$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
ikke en basis for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
jf.
|
|
|
|
|
Proposition
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $7.8$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
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|
|
(størrelse af basis skal være lig dimension af rum).
|
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\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W}$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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kan da ikke udspænde
|
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\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
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\end_inset
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|
.
|
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Det må derfor være muligt at vælge et element
|
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\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}^{\prime}$
|
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\end_inset
|
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|
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|
i
|
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\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
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\end_inset
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som ikke er indeholdet i
|
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\begin_inset Formula ${\rm Span}(\mathcal{W})$
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\end_inset
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.
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Pr.
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Lemma 7.7(2) vil
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\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W}^{\prime}=\mathcal{W}+\boldsymbol{v}^{\prime}$
|
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\end_inset
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være lineært uafhængig.
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\end_layout
|
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\begin_layout Standard
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Pr.
|
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induktion så kan
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\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W}^{\prime}$
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\end_inset
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nu udvides til en basis for
|
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\begin_inset Formula $V$
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\end_inset
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.
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En sådan udvidelse vil samtidig være en udvidelse af det oprindelige
|
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\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W}$
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\end_inset
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Subsection
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Noter
|
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\end_layout
|
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\begin_layout Standard
|
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Overvej at droppe Lemma 7.2 fra dispositionen.
|
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|
\end_layout
|
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|
|
2017-06-09 18:32:10 +00:00
|
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\begin_layout Standard
|
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\begin_inset Newpage newpage
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\end_inset
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\end_layout
|
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\begin_layout Section
|
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|
Matrixrepræsentationer
|
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\end_layout
|
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\begin_layout Subsection
|
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|
|
Definition 8.3 (
|
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|
\emph on
|
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|
Koordinatvektor
|
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|
\emph default
|
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)
|
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\end_layout
|
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|
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\begin_layout Standard
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{V}=(\boldsymbol{v}_{1},\boldsymbol{v}_{2},\dots,\boldsymbol{v}_{n})$
|
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|
|
\end_inset
|
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er en basis for et
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathbb{F}$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
-vektorrum
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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.
|
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|
\emph on
|
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|
Koordinatvektoren
|
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|
|
\emph default
|
|
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|
|
for et element
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}\in V$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
mht.
|
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|
basen
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{V}$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
menes elementet
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L_{\mathcal{V}}^{-1}(\boldsymbol{v})\in\mathbb{F}^{n}$
|
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|
|
\end_inset
|
|
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|
.
|
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|
Koordinatvektoren kan også betegnes med
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\left[\boldsymbol{v}\right]_{\mathcal{V}}$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
\end_layout
|
|
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|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Koordinatvektoren er den vektor
|
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|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
\begin{pmatrix}\alpha_{1}\\
|
|
|
|
|
\alpha_{2}\\
|
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|
|
|
\vdots\\
|
|
|
|
|
\alpha_{n}
|
|
|
|
|
\end{pmatrix}\in\mathbb{F}^{n}
|
|
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|
|
\]
|
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
som opfylder relationen
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
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|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
\boldsymbol{v}=\alpha_{1}\cdot\boldsymbol{v}_{1}+\alpha_{2}\cdot\boldsymbol{v}_{2}+\cdots+\alpha_{n}\cdot\boldsymbol{v}_{n}.
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Subsection
|
|
|
|
|
Definition 8.6 (
|
|
|
|
|
\emph on
|
|
|
|
|
Koordinattransformationsmatricen
|
|
|
|
|
\emph default
|
|
|
|
|
)
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Lad
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{V}=(\boldsymbol{v}_{1},\boldsymbol{v}_{2},\dots,\boldsymbol{v}_{n})$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
og
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W}=(\boldsymbol{w}_{1},\boldsymbol{w}_{2},\dots,\boldsymbol{w}_{n})$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
være baser for det samme
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathbb{F}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
-vektorrum
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\emph on
|
|
|
|
|
Koordinattransformationsmatricen for overgangen fra
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
-basen til
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{V}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
-basen defineres som matricen
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
_{\underset{til}{\underbrace{\mathcal{V}}}}\left[\boxempty\right]_{\underset{fra}{\underbrace{\mathcal{W}}}}=\begin{pmatrix}\vline & \vline & & \vline\\
|
|
|
|
|
\left[\boldsymbol{w}_{1}\right]_{\mathcal{V}} & \left[\boldsymbol{w}_{2}\right]_{\mathcal{V}} & \cdots & \left[\boldsymbol{w}_{n}\right]_{\mathcal{V}}\\
|
|
|
|
|
\vline & \vline & & \vline
|
|
|
|
|
\end{pmatrix}\in{\rm Mat_{n}(\mathbb{F})}
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Subsection
|
|
|
|
|
Definition 8.9 (
|
|
|
|
|
\emph on
|
|
|
|
|
Matrixrepræsentation
|
|
|
|
|
\emph default
|
|
|
|
|
)
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Lad
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L:\:W\rightarrow V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
betegne en lineær afbildning mellem
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathbb{F}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
-vektorrum
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $W$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
og
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
med baser hhv.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W}=(\boldsymbol{w}_{1},\boldsymbol{w}_{2},\dots,\boldsymbol{w}_{n})$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
og
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{V}=(\boldsymbol{v}_{1},\boldsymbol{v}_{2},\dots,\boldsymbol{v}_{n})$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\emph on
|
|
|
|
|
Matrixrepræsentationen
|
|
|
|
|
\emph default
|
|
|
|
|
for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
mht.
|
|
|
|
|
til baserne
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
og
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{V}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
defineres da som matricen
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\emph on
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
_{\underset{til}{\underbrace{\mathcal{V}}}}\left[L\right]_{\underset{fra}{\underbrace{\mathcal{W}}}}=\begin{pmatrix}\vline & \vline & & \vline\\
|
|
|
|
|
\left[L(\boldsymbol{w}_{1})\right]_{\mathcal{V}} & \left[L(\boldsymbol{w}_{2})\right]_{\mathcal{V}} & \cdots & \left[(\boldsymbol{w}_{n})\right]_{\mathcal{V}}\\
|
|
|
|
|
\vline & \vline & & \vline
|
|
|
|
|
\end{pmatrix}\in{\rm Mat_{n}(\mathbb{F})}
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Subsection
|
|
|
|
|
Proposition 8.10(1) (Matrixrepræsentationer og koordinatvektorer)
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Lad
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L:\:V\rightarrow W$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
betegne en lineær afbildning mellem
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathbb{F}-vektorrum$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
og
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $W$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
med baser hhv.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{V}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
og
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, så gælder:
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
(1)
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
\left[L(\boldsymbol{v})\right]_{\mathcal{W}}={}_{\mathcal{W}}\left[L\right]_{\mathcal{V}}\cdot\left[\boldsymbol{v}\right]_{\mathcal{V}}.
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
(2) Hvis
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A\,\in\text{Mat}_{m,n}(\mathbb{F})$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
opfylder relationen
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\left[L(\boldsymbol{v})\right]_{\mathcal{W}}=A\cdot\left[\boldsymbol{v}\right]_{\mathcal{V}}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
for alle
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}\,\in V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, så er
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A=_{\mathcal{W}}\left[L\right]_{\mathcal{V}}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\series bold
|
|
|
|
|
Bevis:
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
(1)
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Lad
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{V}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
og
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
være givet ved hhv.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{V}=(\boldsymbol{v_{1}},\boldsymbol{v_{2},\dots,v}_{n})$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
og
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W}=(\boldsymbol{w_{1}},\boldsymbol{w_{2},\dots,w}_{n})$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
Eftersom
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{V}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er en basis for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
så kan alle elementer
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}\,\in V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
beskrives som en linearkombination af basen
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{V}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|
|
|
:
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
\boldsymbol{v}=\alpha_{1}\cdot\boldsymbol{v}_{1}+\alpha_{2}\cdot\boldsymbol{v}_{2}+\cdots+\alpha_{n}\cdot\boldsymbol{v}_{n}
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
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|
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|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
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|
\end_layout
|
|
|
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|
\begin_layout Standard
|
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|
og specielt vil
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
L(\boldsymbol{v})=\alpha_{1}\cdot L(\boldsymbol{v})_{1}+\alpha_{2}\cdot L(\boldsymbol{v})_{2}+\cdots+\alpha_{n}\cdot L(\boldsymbol{v})_{n}
|
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|
|
\]
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
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|
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|
\begin_layout Standard
|
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|
grundet
|
|
|
|
|
\series bold
|
|
|
|
|
Definition 6.1(b)
|
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|
\series default
|
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|
.
|
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|
|
Ligeledes, grundet egenskaberne ved koordinatvektorer beskrevet i prop
|
|
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|
|
8.4, så kan følgende konkluderes:
|
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\end_layout
|
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
[L(\boldsymbol{v})]_{\mathcal{W}}=\alpha_{1}\cdot[L(\boldsymbol{v})_{1}]_{\mathcal{W}}+\alpha_{2}\cdot[L(\boldsymbol{v})_{2}]_{\mathcal{W}}+\cdots+\alpha_{n}\cdot[L(\boldsymbol{v})_{n}]_{\mathcal{W}}
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|
\]
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|
|
|
\end_inset
|
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|
\end_layout
|
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|
\begin_layout Standard
|
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|
Hvilket kan opskrives som et produkt jf.
|
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|
|
med formel 5.25
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
_{\mathcal{W}}\left[L\right]_{\mathcal{V}}\cdot\begin{pmatrix}\alpha_{1}\\
|
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|
|
\alpha_{2}\\
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|
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|
\vdots\\
|
|
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|
|
\alpha_{n}
|
|
|
|
|
\end{pmatrix}={}_{\mathcal{W}}\left[L\right]_{\mathcal{V}}\cdot\left[\boldsymbol{v}\right]_{\mathcal{V}}
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
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|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
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|
\begin_layout Standard
|
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|
Hvilket viser udsagn (1).
|
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|
\end_layout
|
|
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|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
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|
(2)
|
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|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Antag at en matrix
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A\in{\rm Mat}_{m,n}(\mathbb{F})$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
opfylder egenskaben beskrevet i (2), så vil der gælde:
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-09 18:32:10 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
[L(\boldsymbol{v}_{i})]_{\mathcal{W}}=A\cdot[\boldsymbol{v}_{i}]_{\mathcal{V}}=A\cdot\boldsymbol{e}_{i}\,\,\,\,for\,\,ethvert\,i=1,2,\dots,n
|
2017-06-09 18:32:10 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Hvori højresiden er må være lig den i'te søjle i
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, men venstresiden er lig den i'te søjle i
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $_{\mathcal{W}}\left[L\right]_{\mathcal{V}}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
og altså må de to være ens, som påstået i udsagn (2).
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-09 18:32:10 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Subsection
|
|
|
|
|
Lemma 8.19
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
Lad
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L:\:V\rightarrow W$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
betegne en lineær afbildning, og lad
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{V}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
og
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
betegne baser for hhv.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
og
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $W$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
Så gælder:
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
(1) Et element
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}\in V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
tilhører kernen ker(
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
) for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
hvis og kun hvis den tilsvarende koordinatvektor
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $[\boldsymbol{v}]_{\mathcal{V}}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er et element i nulrummet
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $N(_{\mathcal{W}}\left[L\right]_{\mathcal{V}})$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
for matrixrepræsentationen
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $_{\mathcal{W}}\left[L\right]_{\mathcal{V}}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
(2) Et element
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w\in}W$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
tilhører billedet af
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
hvis og kun hvis den tilsvarende koordinatvektor
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $[\boldsymbol{w}]_{\mathcal{W}}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er et element i søjlerummet
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $R(_{\mathcal{W}}\left[L\right]_{\mathcal{V}})$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
til matrixrepræsentation
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $_{\mathcal{W}}\left[L\right]_{\mathcal{V}}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\series bold
|
|
|
|
|
Bevis
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
(1)
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Idet
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L_{\mathcal{W}}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er en isomorfi (der findes en invers funktion, matrixrepræsentationens
|
|
|
|
|
inverse), så er
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}\in V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
et element i ker(
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
) hvis og kun hvis
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
L_{\mathcal{W}}^{-1}(L(\boldsymbol{v}))=0
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Venstresiden af dette er dog lig
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $[L(\boldsymbol{v})]_{\mathcal{W}}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
hvilket kan skrives som:
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
[L(\boldsymbol{v})]_{\mathcal{W}}={}_{\mathcal{W}}\left[L\right]_{\mathcal{V}}\cdot\left[\boldsymbol{v}\right]_{\mathcal{V}}
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
hvoraf det er oplagt at koordinatvektoren
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $[\boldsymbol{v}]_{\mathcal{V}}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
skal være i nulrummet.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
2017-06-09 18:32:10 +00:00
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
(2)
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Lad nu
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w}\in W$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
Hvis
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er i billedet
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L(V)$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
så eksisterer der et
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}\in V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, således at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w}=L(\boldsymbol{v}).$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Dette leder til følgende sammenhæng:
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
[\boldsymbol{w}]_{\mathcal{W}}=[L(\boldsymbol{v})]_{\mathcal{W}}={}_{\mathcal{W}}\left[L\right]_{\mathcal{V}}\cdot\left[\boldsymbol{v}\right]_{\mathcal{V}}
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Hvilket betyder at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $[\boldsymbol{w}]_{\mathcal{W}}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
må være et element i søjlerummet til
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $_{\mathcal{W}}\left[L\right]_{\mathcal{V}}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
Hvis omvendt
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $[\boldsymbol{w}]_{\mathcal{W}}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er et element i søjlerummet til
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $_{\mathcal{W}}\left[L\right]_{\mathcal{V}}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, så må der findes en vektor
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{a}\in\mathbb{F}^{n}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
hvor
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $n$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
beskriver dimensionen af
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, så:
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
[\boldsymbol{w}]_{\mathcal{W}}={}_{\mathcal{W}}\left[L\right]_{\mathcal{V}}\cdot\boldsymbol{a}
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Hvis
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}=L_{\mathcal{V}}(\boldsymbol{a})$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
så:
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\begin{align*}
|
|
|
|
|
[L(\boldsymbol{v})]_{\mathcal{W}} & =_{\mathcal{W}}\left[L\right]_{\mathcal{V}}\cdot\left[\boldsymbol{v}\right]_{\mathcal{V}}\\
|
|
|
|
|
& =_{\mathcal{W}}\left[L\right]_{\mathcal{V}}\cdot\boldsymbol{a}\\
|
|
|
|
|
& =[\boldsymbol{w}]_{\mathcal{W}}
|
|
|
|
|
\end{align*}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Idet
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L_{\mathcal{W}}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er en isomorfi, så følger det at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w}=L(\boldsymbol{v})$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
og
|
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\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w}$
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\end_inset
|
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er derfor et element i billedet af
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\begin_inset Formula $L$
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\end_inset
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.
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Subsection
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Lemma 8.20
|
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Standard
|
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Lad
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\begin_inset Formula $L\,:\,V\rightarrow W$
|
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\end_inset
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betegne en lineær afbildning og lad
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\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{V}$
|
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\end_inset
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og
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\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W}$
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\end_inset
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betegne baser for hhv.
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\begin_inset Formula $V$
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\end_inset
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og
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\begin_inset Formula $W$
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\end_inset
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.
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Lad
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\begin_inset Formula $r$
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\end_inset
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betegne rangen af matrixrepræsentationen
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\begin_inset Formula $_{\mathcal{W}}\left[L\right]_{\mathcal{V}}$
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\end_inset
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.
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Så gælder:
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Standard
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(1) Billedet af
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\begin_inset Formula $L_{\mathcal{V}}(N({}_{\mathcal{W}}\left[L\right]_{\mathcal{V}}))$
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\end_inset
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af nulrummet til
|
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\begin_inset Formula $_{\mathcal{W}}\left[L\right]_{\mathcal{V}}$
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\end_inset
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under isormorfien
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\begin_inset Formula $L_{\mathcal{V}}$
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\end_inset
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er lig kernen ker
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\begin_inset Formula $(L)$
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\end_inset
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.
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Specielt inducerer
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\begin_inset Formula $L_{\mathcal{V}}$
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\end_inset
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en isomorfi:
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Standard
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\begin_inset Formula
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\begin{align*}
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N(_{\mathcal{W}}\left[L\right]_{\mathcal{V}}) & \rightarrow ker\,L\\
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& \boldsymbol{a\mapsto}L_{\mathcal{V}}(\boldsymbol{a})
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\end{align*}
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\end_inset
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Standard
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Og vi har derfor: dim(ker(
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\begin_inset Formula $L$
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\end_inset
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))
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\begin_inset Formula $=\text{dim}(V)-r$
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\end_inset
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.
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Standard
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|
(2) Billedet
|
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\begin_inset Formula $L_{\mathcal{W}}(R(_{W}[L]_{\mathcal{V}}))$
|
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\end_inset
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af søjlerummet til
|
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\begin_inset Formula $_{\mathcal{W}}[L]_{\mathcal{V}}$
|
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\end_inset
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under
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\begin_inset Formula $L_{\mathcal{W}}$
|
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\end_inset
|
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er lig billedet
|
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\begin_inset Formula $L(V)$
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\end_inset
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.
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Specielt inducerer
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $L_{\mathcal{W}}$
|
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\end_inset
|
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en isomorfi
|
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\end_layout
|
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|
\begin_layout Standard
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula
|
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|
\begin{align*}
|
|
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|
|
R(_{\mathcal{W}}[L]_{\mathcal{V}}) & \rightarrow L(V),\\
|
|
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|
|
& \boldsymbol{b}\mapsto L_{\mathcal{W}}(\boldsymbol{b})
|
|
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|
|
\end{align*}
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
\end_layout
|
|
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|
\begin_layout Standard
|
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|
|
Og derfor har vi:
|
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\text{dim}(L(V))=r$
|
|
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|
\end_inset
|
|
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|
2017-06-10 10:23:23 +00:00
|
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|
\end_layout
|
|
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|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Newpage newpage
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
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|
\end_layout
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Section
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
Indre produkt
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Subsection
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
Definition 9.1
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
Afbildningen
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\left\langle \cdot,\cdot\right\rangle :V\times V\rightarrow\mathbb{K}
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
benævnes som det
|
|
|
|
|
\emph on
|
|
|
|
|
indre produkt
|
|
|
|
|
\emph default
|
|
|
|
|
hvis der for alle
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{u},\boldsymbol{v},\boldsymbol{w}\in V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
og skalarer
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\alpha,\beta\in\mathbb{K}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
gælder at:
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Enumerate
|
|
|
|
|
Skalaren
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\left\langle \boldsymbol{v},\boldsymbol{v}\right\rangle $
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
er et reelt tal, der er større end eller lig med nul.
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Enumerate
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\left\langle \boldsymbol{v},\boldsymbol{v}\right\rangle =0\implies\boldsymbol{v}=\boldsymbol{0}$
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Enumerate
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\left\langle \boldsymbol{v},\boldsymbol{w}\right\rangle =\overline{\left\langle \boldsymbol{w},\boldsymbol{v}\right\rangle }$
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Enumerate
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\left\langle \alpha\cdot\boldsymbol{u}+\beta\cdot\boldsymbol{v},\boldsymbol{w}\right\rangle =\alpha\cdot\left\langle \boldsymbol{u},\boldsymbol{w}\right\rangle +\beta\cdot\left\langle \boldsymbol{v},\boldsymbol{w}\right\rangle $
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Subsection
|
|
|
|
|
Bemærkning 9.4 (Naiv definition af komplekst skalarprodukt)
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Subsection
|
|
|
|
|
Definition 9.5 (Norm)
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\emph on
|
|
|
|
|
Normen
|
|
|
|
|
\emph default
|
|
|
|
|
af et element
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
i et indre produkt rum
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
defineres som
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\left\Vert \boldsymbol{v}\right\Vert =\sqrt{\left\langle \boldsymbol{v},\boldsymbol{v}\right\rangle }\in\mathbb{R}_{\geq0}
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Subsection
|
|
|
|
|
Definition 9.7 (Ortogonalitet)
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
To elementer
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}$
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
og
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w}$
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
i et indre produkt rum kaldes
|
|
|
|
|
\emph on
|
|
|
|
|
ortogonale
|
|
|
|
|
\emph default
|
|
|
|
|
hvis
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
\left\langle \boldsymbol{v},\boldsymbol{w}\right\rangle =0
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
dette skrives også som
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
\boldsymbol{v}\perp\boldsymbol{w}.
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Denne betingelse er oplagt symmetrisk (betingelse 3 (c) i definitionen af
|
|
|
|
|
indre produkt) således at
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\boldsymbol{v}\perp\boldsymbol{w}\iff\boldsymbol{w}\perp\boldsymbol{v}
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Subsection
|
|
|
|
|
Lemma 9.11
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
Lad
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}$
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
og
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w}$
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
hvor
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $w\neq0$
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
betegne elementer i et indre produkt rum
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
Der kan da findes en ortogonal projektion
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{p}$
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
af
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}$
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
på
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w}$
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
, hvilken er givet ved
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\boldsymbol{p}=\frac{\left\langle \boldsymbol{v},\boldsymbol{w}\right\rangle }{\left\langle \boldsymbol{w},\boldsymbol{w}\right\rangle }\boldsymbol{w}
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
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|
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|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\series bold
|
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|
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|
Bevis
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
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|
\begin_layout Standard
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
Eftersom
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\alpha\cdot\boldsymbol{w}$
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
per definition vil være en ortogonal projektion af
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
på
|
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w}$
|
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|
|
|
\end_inset
|
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|
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|
, såfremt
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\left\langle \boldsymbol{v}-\alpha\cdot\boldsymbol{w},\boldsymbol{w}\right\rangle =\left\langle \boldsymbol{v},\boldsymbol{w}\right\rangle -\alpha\cdot\left\langle \boldsymbol{w},\boldsymbol{w}\right\rangle =0
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
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|
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|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
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|
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|
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|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
hvilket netop vil gælde når
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\alpha=\frac{\left\langle \boldsymbol{v},\boldsymbol{w}\right\rangle }{\left\langle \boldsymbol{w},\boldsymbol{w}\right\rangle }
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
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|
\end_layout
|
|
|
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|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
Hvilket afslutter beviset, da den ortogonale projektion udregnes ved at
|
|
|
|
|
sige
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $v-(\alpha\cdot\boldsymbol{w})$
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
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|
, så det ekstra
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w}$
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
i udregningen for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{p}$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
|
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|
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|
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|
, kommer derfra.
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
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|
\end_layout
|
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|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Subsection
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
Proposition 9.12 (Cauchy-Schwarz' ulighed)
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
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|
\begin_layout Standard
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
For vektorer
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}$
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
og
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w}$
|
|
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|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
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|
i et indre produkt rum
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
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|
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|
|
gælder der uligheden
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
|\left\langle \boldsymbol{v},\boldsymbol{w}\right\rangle |\leq\left\Vert \boldsymbol{v}\right\Vert \cdot\left\Vert \boldsymbol{w}\right\Vert
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
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|
|
|
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|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
hvor venstresiden betegner den absolutte værdi af skalaren
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\left\langle \boldsymbol{v},\boldsymbol{w}\right\rangle $
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\series bold
|
|
|
|
|
Bevis
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
Uligheden er allerede opfyldt, hvis
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w}=\boldsymbol{0}$
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
, jf.
|
|
|
|
|
Lemma 9.6(3), dvs skalarproduktet af noget med nulvektoren, vil altid give
|
|
|
|
|
0 og ligeså vil længden af nulvektoren være 0.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Antag derfor at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w}\neq0$
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
og lad
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{p}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
betegne den ortogonale projektion af
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
på
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, så er
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\boldsymbol{v}=\boldsymbol{p}+(\boldsymbol{v}-\boldsymbol{p})
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
og
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{p}$
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
og
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}-\boldsymbol{p}$
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
er heri ortogonale (Tænk over det,
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}-\boldsymbol{p}$
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
, er vektoren der står vinkelret på
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{p}$
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
og når til 'enden' af
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}$
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
).
|
|
|
|
|
Denne opspaltning er halvvejs en god ide, men definitionen på v kommer
|
|
|
|
|
først senere i bogen under et andet kapitel.
|
|
|
|
|
Det svarer til
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}=\boldsymbol{p}+\boldsymbol{h}$
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
i den senere definition.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Vi får den gode ide, at det ligner en trekant (hvis man tegner de forskellige
|
|
|
|
|
vektorer), og kan derfor bruge Pythagoras sætning til at finde længden
|
|
|
|
|
af
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}.$
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
Ifølge Pythagoras sætning, prop 9.9, så kan normen af vektoren
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}$
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
, så findes ved
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\left\Vert \boldsymbol{v}\right\Vert ^{2}=\left\Vert \boldsymbol{p}\right\Vert ^{2}+\left\Vert \boldsymbol{v}-\boldsymbol{p}\right\Vert ^{2}\ge\left\Vert \boldsymbol{p}\right\Vert ^{2}
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
hvilket betyder at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\left\Vert \boldsymbol{v}\right\Vert \ge\left\Vert \boldsymbol{p}\right\Vert $
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
Dette kan via definition på en ortogonal projektion og Lemma 9.6(2) (
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\left\Vert \alpha\boldsymbol{v}\right\Vert =|\alpha|\cdot\left\Vert \boldsymbol{v}\right\Vert $
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
) lede til udledningen
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
\left\Vert \boldsymbol{p}\right\Vert =\frac{|\left\langle \boldsymbol{v},\boldsymbol{w}\right\rangle |}{\left\Vert \boldsymbol{w}\right\Vert ^{2}}\cdot\left\Vert \boldsymbol{w}\right\Vert =\frac{|\left\langle \boldsymbol{v},\boldsymbol{w}\right\rangle |}{\left\Vert \boldsymbol{w}\right\Vert }
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
Hvilket betyder
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\left\Vert \boldsymbol{v}\right\Vert \ge\frac{|\left\langle \boldsymbol{v},\boldsymbol{w}\right\rangle |}{\left\Vert \boldsymbol{w}\right\Vert }
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
hvilket er ækvivalent med den oprindelige ulighed.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Section
|
|
|
|
|
Ortogonale og Ortonormale baser
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Subsection
|
|
|
|
|
Definition 10.1 (Ortogonale og ortonormale mængder)
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
En samling af elementer
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v_{1}},\boldsymbol{v}_{2},\dots,\boldsymbol{v}_{n}\in V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
kaldes en ortogonal mængde, såfremt følgende betingelser er opfyldt.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
(a)
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}_{i}\ne\boldsymbol{0}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $i=1,2,\dots,n$
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
(b)
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}_{i}\perp\boldsymbol{v}_{j}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
når
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $i\ne j$
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
(c)
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\left\Vert \boldsymbol{v}_{i}\right\Vert =1$
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $i=1,2,\dots,n$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Såfremt (c) også opfyldes, så er det en ortoNORMAL mængde, da alle vektorer
|
|
|
|
|
er normaliserede.
|
|
|
|
|
Man kan nemt komme fra en ortogonal mængde til en ortonormal mængde, ved
|
|
|
|
|
blot at normalisere hver vektor i den ortogonale mængde:
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
\frac{1}{\left\Vert \boldsymbol{v}_{i}\right\Vert }\boldsymbol{v}_{i}
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
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|
\end_inset
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|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
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|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Subsection
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
Lemma 10.22 (Gram-Schmidt)
|
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|
|
|
\end_layout
|
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|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Gram-Schmidt processen bruges til at tage en normal basis, først ændre den
|
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|
|
|
til en ortogonal base og derefter normalisere den, så man får en ortonormal
|
|
|
|
|
basis.
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
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|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
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|
Lad
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
betegne et indre produkt rum med basis
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{V}=(\boldsymbol{v}_{1},\boldsymbol{v}_{2},\dots,\boldsymbol{v}_{n})$
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
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\end_inset
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.
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
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Lad
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|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{p}_{k}$
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
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for
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|
|
\begin_inset Formula $k=1,2,\dots,n-1$
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|
\end_inset
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
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|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
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|
betegne den ortogonale projektion af
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}_{k+1}$
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
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|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
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|
på underrummet
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $\text{Span}(\boldsymbol{v}_{1},\boldsymbol{v}_{2},\dots,\boldsymbol{v}_{k})$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
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|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
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, så er
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
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|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
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|
|
\[
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\mathcal{W}=(\boldsymbol{v}_{1},\boldsymbol{v}_{2}-\boldsymbol{p}_{1},\boldsymbol{v}_{3}-\boldsymbol{p}_{2},\dots,\boldsymbol{v}_{n}-\boldsymbol{p}_{n-1})
|
2017-06-10 09:11:16 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\]
|
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|
|
\end_inset
|
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|
\end_layout
|
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|
\begin_layout Standard
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
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|
|
også en basis for
|
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
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|
\end_inset
|
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.
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|
2017-06-09 18:32:10 +00:00
|
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|
\end_layout
|
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|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
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|
\begin_layout Standard
|
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|
\series bold
|
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|
Bevis
|
2017-06-10 10:23:23 +00:00
|
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|
\end_layout
|
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|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
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|
\begin_layout Standard
|
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|
Start med at sætte
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w}_{1}=\boldsymbol{v}_{1}$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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og
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w}_{k}=\boldsymbol{v}_{k}-\boldsymbol{p}_{k-1}$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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for
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|
\begin_inset Formula $k=1,2,\dots n$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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.
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Jf.
|
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|
|
prop 10.4 (der siger at en ortogonale mængde er lineært uafhængig) og prop
|
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|
|
|
7.11 (der siger at for en mængde af elementer i vektorrummmet
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V_{n},$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
|
gælder, at hvis mængden er af størrelse n, så er tre udsagn ækvivalente,
|
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|
|
|
heriblandt lineært uafhængighed og værende en basis, så mængden udspænder
|
|
|
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|
også
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
), er det tilstrækkeligt at vise at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $(\boldsymbol{w}_{1},\boldsymbol{w}_{2},\dots,\boldsymbol{w}_{n})$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
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|
|
er en ortogonal mængde.
|
|
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|
2017-06-10 10:23:23 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
Lad
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V_{k}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $k=1,2,\dots,n$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
betegne underrummet
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\text{Span}(\boldsymbol{v}_{1},\boldsymbol{v}_{2},\dots,\boldsymbol{v}_{k})$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
Der påstås så
|
2017-06-10 10:23:23 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\boldsymbol{w}_{k+1}\in V_{k}^{\perp}\cap V_{k+1}
|
2017-06-10 10:23:23 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $k=1,2,\dots,n-1$
|
2017-06-10 10:23:23 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
Hvilket kan forstås som at elementet
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w}_{k+1}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
2017-06-10 10:23:23 +00:00
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
både er ortogonal på mængden af
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V_{k}$
|
2017-06-10 10:23:23 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
, men den også er i mængden af
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V_{k+1}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
2017-06-10 10:23:23 +00:00
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
I første omgang
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{p}_{k}$
|
2017-06-10 10:23:23 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
, for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $k=1,2,\dots,n-1$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
2017-06-10 10:23:23 +00:00
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
, den ortogonale projektion af
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}_{k+1}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
2017-06-10 10:23:23 +00:00
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
på
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V_{k}$
|
2017-06-10 10:23:23 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
, hvilket derfor implicerer at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w}_{k+1}=\boldsymbol{v}_{k+1}-\boldsymbol{p}_{k}\in V_{k}^{\perp}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
2017-06-10 10:23:23 +00:00
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
, per definition 10.11 (Definitionen for ortogonal projektion).
|
|
|
|
|
Desuden er
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w}_{k+1}=\boldsymbol{v}_{k+1}-\boldsymbol{p}_{k}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
2017-06-10 10:23:23 +00:00
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
en differens mellem to elementer i
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V_{k+1}$
|
2017-06-10 10:23:23 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
(da
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{p}_{k}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
2017-06-10 10:23:23 +00:00
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
er en projektion og dermed i rummet), hvilket betyder at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w}_{k+1}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
2017-06-10 10:23:23 +00:00
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
selv er et element i
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V_{k+1}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
2017-06-10 10:23:23 +00:00
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 10:23:23 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
Der ønskes så at vise at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w}_{i}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
2017-06-10 10:23:23 +00:00
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
og
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w}_{j}$
|
2017-06-10 10:23:23 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
med
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset space ~
|
2017-06-10 10:23:23 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
i < j er ortogonale.
|
|
|
|
|
j må være større end 1 og ovenstående formel implicerer derfor
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
2017-06-10 10:23:23 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\boldsymbol{w}_{j}\in V_{j-1}^{\perp}
|
2017-06-10 10:23:23 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
hvilket må betyde at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w}_{j}$
|
2017-06-10 10:23:23 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
er ortogonal på
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w}_{i},$
|
2017-06-10 10:23:23 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
idet
|
2017-06-10 10:23:23 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\boldsymbol{w}_{i}\in V_{i}\subseteq V_{j-1}
|
2017-06-10 10:23:23 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
og antagelsen at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $i<j$
|
2017-06-10 10:23:23 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
Dette er oplagt, da
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w}_{i}\in V_{j-1}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
og
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w}_{j}\in V_{j-1}^{\perp},$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
så
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w}_{j}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er i det ortogonale komplement til den mængde
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w}_{i}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er i.
|
|
|
|
|
Nu ønskes der blot at vise at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $(\boldsymbol{w}_{1},\boldsymbol{w}_{2},\dots,\boldsymbol{w}_{n})$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er forskellige fra
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{0}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
Først er
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w}_{1}=\boldsymbol{v}_{1}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
forskellig fra
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{0},$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
da
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}_{1}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er en del af basen
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{V}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V.$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Dernæst betragtes
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w}_{k}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $k>1$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
Såfremt
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w}_{k}=0,$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
så vil
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}_{k}=\boldsymbol{p}_{k-1}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
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|
|
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|
være et element i
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V_{k-1}$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
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, men det ville betyde at
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $(\boldsymbol{v}_{1},\boldsymbol{v}_{2},\dots,\boldsymbol{v}_{k})$
|
|
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|
|
\end_inset
|
|
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|
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|
|
|
er lineært afhængig, da elementet
|
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}_{k}\in V_{k-1}$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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, jf.
|
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Lemma 7.7(2), hvilket er i modstrid med antagelsen.
|
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|
\end_layout
|
|
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|
|
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\begin_layout Subsection
|
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|
Lemma 10.23
|
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\end_layout
|
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|
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|
\begin_layout Standard
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Lad
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
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\end_inset
|
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betegne et indre produkt rum med basis
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{V}=(\boldsymbol{v}_{1},\boldsymbol{v}_{2},\dots,\boldsymbol{v}_{n})$
|
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\end_inset
|
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og lad
|
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\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W}=(\boldsymbol{w}_{1},\boldsymbol{w}_{2},\dots,\boldsymbol{w}_{n})$
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\end_inset
|
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betegne den ortogonale basis for
|
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\begin_inset Formula $V$
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\end_inset
|
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bestemt ud fra
|
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\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W}$
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\end_inset
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.
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Lemma 10.23 omhandler at tage en basis og så gå fra den basis direkte til
|
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den ortonormale basis.
|
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Dog kan man blot bruge lemma 10.22 og så derefter normalisere vektorerne
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i
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\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W},$
|
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\end_inset
|
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hvilket er grunden til det lige nævnes nu.
|
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\end_layout
|
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\begin_layout Standard
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
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|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
\boldsymbol{u}_{i}=\frac{1}{\left\Vert \boldsymbol{w}_{i}\right\Vert }\boldsymbol{w}_{i}\quad for\,i=1,2,\dots,n
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\]
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\end_inset
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Hvis man ønsker at gå direkte, så defineres det første element
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{u}_{1}$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
|
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da til:
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
\boldsymbol{u}_{1}=\frac{1}{\left\Vert v_{1}\right\Vert }\boldsymbol{v}_{1}
|
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|
\]
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\end_inset
|
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jf.
|
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|
med definitionen af
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w}_{1}$
|
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|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
i Lemma 10.22, hvor de resterende elementer defineres:
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
\boldsymbol{u}_{k+1}=\frac{1}{\left\Vert \boldsymbol{v}_{k+1}-\boldsymbol{p}_{k}\right\Vert }(\boldsymbol{v}_{k+1}-\boldsymbol{p}_{k})\qquad for\,k=1,2,\dots,n-1
|
|
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|
\]
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\end_inset
|
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\end_layout
|
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|
\begin_layout Standard
|
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|
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|
Hvor
|
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|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
\boldsymbol{p}_{k}=\left\langle \boldsymbol{v}_{k+1},\boldsymbol{u}_{1}\right\rangle \boldsymbol{u}_{1}+\left\langle \boldsymbol{v}_{k+1},\boldsymbol{u}_{2}\right\rangle \boldsymbol{u}_{2}+\dots+\left\langle \boldsymbol{v}_{k+1},\boldsymbol{u}_{k}\right\rangle \boldsymbol{u}_{k}
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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\end_layout
|
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\begin_layout Standard
|
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|
|
Dette vil ikke bevises, men er her blot for at illustrere hvad Lemma 10.22
|
|
|
|
|
bruges til.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
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|
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|
\begin_layout Standard
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Newpage pagebreak
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
\end_layout
|
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|
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|
\begin_layout Section
|
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|
|
Determinanter
|
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|
|
\end_layout
|
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|
|
\begin_layout Subsection
|
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|
Noget med definitionen på en determinant
|
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|
\end_layout
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Subsection
|
|
|
|
|
Sætning 11.18
|
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|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Lad
|
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A,\,B\in\text{Mat}_{n}(\mathbb{F})$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, så er
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
\text{Det}(A\cdot B)=\text{Det}(A)\cdot\text{Det}(B)
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
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|
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|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\series bold
|
|
|
|
|
Bevis
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Antag at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er singulær, altså den har ingen invers.
|
|
|
|
|
Der påstås at dette betyder at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A\cdot B$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er singulær, da
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $B\cdot(A\cdot B)^{-1}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
ellers ville være en invers til
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, eftersom
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
A\cdot(B\cdot(A\cdot B)^{-1})=(A\cdot B)\cdot(A\cdot B)^{-1}={\rm {\rm I}}
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Hvilket er umuligt, da
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
per antagelse er singulær.
|
|
|
|
|
Eftersom
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er singulær, må
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\text{Det}(A)=0$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, da dette, jf.
|
|
|
|
|
prop 11.17, betyder at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
ikke er invertibel.
|
|
|
|
|
Derfor gælder følgende:
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
\text{Det}(A\cdot B)=\text{Det}(A)=\boldsymbol{0}
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Hvilket opfylder det oprindelige, da alt ganget med 0, vil give 0 og det
|
|
|
|
|
derfor ikke gør nogen forskel, hvad B er.
|
|
|
|
|
Desuden er produktet af
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A\cdot B$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
også en singulær kvadratisk matrice og dermed er
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\text{Det}(A\cdot B)=0$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Antag så at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er invertibel og dermed rækkeækvivalent med identitetsmatricen.
|
|
|
|
|
Dette betyder at den opdelte matrix
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $(A\,\vline\,A\cdot B)$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er rækkeækvivalent med
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $({\rm I}\,\vline\,C)$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
jf.
|
|
|
|
|
prop 4.6, for en passende matric
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $C$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, i dette tilfælde noget der er rækkeækvivalent med
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A\cdot B$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Dette resultat betyder, at der jf.
|
|
|
|
|
Lemma 11.16 eksisterer en skalar
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\alpha\in\mathbb{F}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, så
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
\text{Det}(A)=\alpha\cdot\text{Det}({\rm I})
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
og dermed også
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
\text{Det}(A\cdot B)=\alpha\cdot\text{Det}(C)
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Men jf.
|
|
|
|
|
prop 11.17, så implicerer ovenstående at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\text{Det}(A)=\alpha$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
og hvis dette indsættes i sidstnævnte formel, så opnås følgende:
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
\text{Det}(A\cdot B)=\text{Det}(A)\cdot\text{Det}(C)
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Hvori C er lig
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
C=A^{-1}\cdot(A\cdot B)=B
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
jf.
|
|
|
|
|
prop 4.12, der siger at da
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A\cdot B$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er rækkeækvivalent med
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $C$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, så gælder ovenstående formel.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Subsection
|
|
|
|
|
Proposition 11.30
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Lad
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A\in\text{Mat}_{n}(\mathbb{F})$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
Så er
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
\text{adj}(A)\cdot A=\text{Det}(A)\cdot{\rm I}=A\cdot\text{adj}(A)
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
hvori
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula ${\rm I}\in\text{Mat}_{n}(\mathbb{F})$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
betegner identitetsmatricen.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\series bold
|
|
|
|
|
Bevis
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Jf.
|
|
|
|
|
deinitionen på matrixproduktet, så kan den
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $(i,j)$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
'te indgang i produktet
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A\cdot\text{adj}(A)$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|
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|
beskrives som
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
\sum_{r=1}^{n}a_{i,r}A_{j,r}
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
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|
\end_layout
|
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|
\begin_layout Standard
|
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|
Husk at hver indgang
|
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Formula $(i,j)$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
i
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|
\begin_inset Formula $\text{adj}(A)$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
består af kofaktorer og derfor er
|
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\begin_inset Formula $A_{i,j}$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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et tal og ikke en matrice.
|
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Ovenstående formel beskriver jf.
|
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Proposition 11.26 også determinaten af matricen, der kan fremkomme ved at
|
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udskifte den
|
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\begin_inset Formula $j$
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\end_inset
|
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'te række i
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|
\begin_inset Formula $A$
|
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|
\end_inset
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med den
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\begin_inset Formula $i$
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\end_inset
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'te række i
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\begin_inset Formula $A$
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\end_inset
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.
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Såfremt
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\begin_inset Formula $i\neq j$
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\end_inset
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, så er determinanten lig 0, jf.
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Lemma 11.13, da der isåfald vil være to ens rækker, men hvis
|
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\begin_inset Formula $i=j$
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\end_inset
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, så er determinanten lig
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\begin_inset Formula $\text{Det}(A)$
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|
\end_inset
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.
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Derfor gælder identiteten
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula
|
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|
\[
|
|
|
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|
\text{Det}(A)\cdot{\rm I}=A\cdot\text{adj}(A)
|
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|
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|
\]
|
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|
\end_inset
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\end_layout
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|
\begin_layout Standard
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|
Den resterende del af den oprindelige proposition, følger ved at anvende
|
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|
|
ovenstående på matricen
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A^{T}$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
|
|
|
|
:
|
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|
\end_layout
|
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
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|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
\text{Det}(A^{T})\cdot{\rm I}=A^{T}\cdot\text{adj}(A^{T})=A^{T}\cdot\text{adj}(A)^{T}
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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\end_layout
|
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|
\begin_layout Standard
|
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|
Hvor det sidste lighedstegn følger af Lemma 11.29.
|
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|
Dermed jf.
|
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|
|
|
Lemma 11.20, vil:
|
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|
\end_layout
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
\text{Det}(A)\cdot{\rm I}=A^{T}\cdot\text{adj}(A)^{T}
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
\end_layout
|
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|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
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|
|
hvilket implicerer
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
\text{adj}(A)\cdot A=(A^{T}\cdot\text{adj}(A)^{T})^{T}=(\text{Det}(A)\cdot{\rm I)^{T}=\text{Det}(A)\cdot{\rm I}}
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
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|
\end_layout
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
hvori det sidste lighedstegn følger, da
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\text{Det}(A)\cdot{\rm I}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
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|
er diagonal.
|
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|
Hermed er beviset afsluttet.
|
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|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Subsection
|
|
|
|
|
Korollar 13.32
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Lad
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A\in\text{Mat}_{n}(\mathbb{F})$
|
|
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|
|
\end_inset
|
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med
|
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|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $n>1$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
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|
For
|
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Formula $i\le i\le n$
|
|
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|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
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|
gælder
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
\text{Det}(A)=\sum_{j=1}^{n}a_{i,j}\cdot A_{i,j}
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
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|
|
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|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Tilsvarende gælder der, for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $1\leq j\leq n$
|
|
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|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
\text{\text{Det}(A)=\sum_{i=1}^{n}a_{i,j}\cdot A_{i,j}}
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Disse kan relateres til prop 11.30 og dermed bruges til at beskrive henholdsvis
|
|
|
|
|
udvikling af række og søjle.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Newpage pagebreak
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Section
|
|
|
|
|
Egenværdier og egenvektorer
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Subsection
|
|
|
|
|
Definition 12.1 (Egenværdi og egenvektor)
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Et element
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v\in}V\setminus\{\boldsymbol{0}\}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
siges at være en egenvektor for L, såfremt der eksisterer en skalar
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\lambda\in\mathbb{F},$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
så
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
L(\boldsymbol{v})=\lambda\cdot\boldsymbol{v}
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Hvor
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\lambda$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
kaldes for egenværdien hørende til
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
Dette kan også gøres for matricer, såfremt
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L=L_{A},$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
så
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
A\cdot\boldsymbol{v}=\lambda\cdot\boldsymbol{v}
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Subsection
|
|
|
|
|
Definition 12.4 (Egenrum)
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Lad
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L:V\rightarrow V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
betegne en lineær operator, og lad
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\lambda\in\mathbb{F}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
Egenrummet for L tilhørende
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\lambda$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
defineres til:
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
E_{L}(\lambda)=\{\boldsymbol{v}\in V\,|\,L(\boldsymbol{v})=\lambda\cdot\boldsymbol{v}\}
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Dette kan også defineres som en matric, definitionen følger.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Subsection
|
|
|
|
|
Definition 12.16 (Similære matricer)
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Lad
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A,B\in\text{Mat}_{n}(\mathbb{F})$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
betegne kvadratiske matricer.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
og
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $B$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er da similære, hvis der eksisterer en invertibel matrix
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $S\in\text{Mat}_{n}(\mathbb{F})$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, så
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A=S^{-1}\cdot B\cdot S$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
At de er similære, betyder blandt andet at de har det samme karakteristiske
|
|
|
|
|
polynomium, pr.
|
|
|
|
|
Lemma 12.15 og derfor har de ens egenværdier.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Dette viser at det karakteristiske polynomium ikke afhænger af basen.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Subsection
|
|
|
|
|
Lemma 12.15 (Similære Matricer)
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Lad
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A,B\in\text{Mat}_{n}(\mathbb{F})$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
og lad
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $S\in\text{Mat}_{n}(\mathbb{F})$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
betegne en invertibel matrix, så gælder
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
A=S^{-1}\cdot B\cdot S
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
og så er de karakteristiske polynomiumer
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $p_{A}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
og
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $p_{B}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
ens.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\series bold
|
|
|
|
|
Bevis
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Lad
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $t\in\mathbb{F}.$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Vi skal da vise at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $p_{A}(t)=p_{B}(t),$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
derfor:
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
\text{Det}(A-t\cdot{\rm I})=\text{Det}(B-t\cdot{\rm I})
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Standard
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Men
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula
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|
\begin{align*}
|
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|
S^{-1}\cdot(B-t\cdot{\rm I)\cdot S} & =S^{-1}\cdot B\cdot S-t\cdot S^{-1}\cdot S\\
|
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& =S^{-1}\cdot B\cdot S-t\cdot S^{-1}\cdot S\\
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& =A-t\cdot{\rm I}
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\end{align*}
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\end_inset
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Så derfor konkluderes:
|
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\begin_inset Formula
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\begin{align*}
|
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|
p_{A}(t) & =\text{Det}(A-t\cdot{\rm I})\\
|
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& =\text{Det}(S^{-1}\cdot(B-t\cdot{\rm I})\cdot S)\\
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& =\text{Det(}S^{-1})\cdot\text{Det}(B-t\cdot{\rm I})\cdot\text{Det}(S)\\
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|
& =\text{Det}(S^{-1})\cdot p_{B}(t)\cdot\text{Det}(S)\\
|
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|
& =\text{Det}(S^{-1}\cdot S)\cdot p_{B}(t)\\
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& =p_{B}(t)
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\end{align*}
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\end_inset
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Standard
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Hvilket afslutter beviset.
|
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\end_layout
|
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\begin_layout Subsection
|
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|
Definition 13.1 (Diagonaliserbar, bare lige SUPER kort)
|
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\end_layout
|
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\begin_layout Standard
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Ting går ned langs diagonalen, wuhu.
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\end_layout
|
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\begin_layout Subsection
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|
Proposition 13.2(Diagonalgøgl)
|
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\end_layout
|
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|
\begin_layout Standard
|
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|
Lad
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{V}=(\boldsymbol{v}_{1},\boldsymbol{v}_{2},\dots,\boldsymbol{v}_{n})$
|
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\end_inset
|
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|
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|
betegne en basis for
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
|
|
|
|
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.
|
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Så er
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{V}$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
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|
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|
en basis af egenvektorer for
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $L$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
|
hvis og kun hvis matrixrepræsentationen
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Formula $_{\mathcal{V}}[L]_{\mathcal{V}}$
|
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|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
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|
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|
er diagonal.
|
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I givet fald er den
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $i$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
'te diagonalindgang i
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Formula $_{\mathcal{V}}[L]_{\mathcal{V}}$
|
|
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|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|
lig egenværdien for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}_{i}.$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
\end_layout
|
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|
\begin_layout Standard
|
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|
|
\series bold
|
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|
|
|
Bevis
|
|
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|
\end_layout
|
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|
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|
\begin_layout Standard
|
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|
|
Bemærk at den
|
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Formula $i$
|
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|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
'te søjle i
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $_{\mathcal{V}}[L]_{\mathcal{V}}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er lig koordinatvektoren
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $[L(\boldsymbol{v}_{i})]_{\mathcal{V}}\in\mathbb{F}^{n},$
|
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|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
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|
jf.
|
|
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|
|
definition 8.9 (Definitionen for matrixrepræsentation).
|
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|
\end_layout
|
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|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Hvis
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{V}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er en basis for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
bestående af egenvektorer for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, så vil den
|
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Formula $i$
|
|
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|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
'te søjle i
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $_{\mathcal{V}}[L]_{\mathcal{V}}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
være lig
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
[L(\boldsymbol{v}_{i})]_{\mathcal{V}}=[\lambda_{i}\cdot\boldsymbol{v}_{i}]_{\mathcal{V}}=\lambda_{i}\cdot[v]_{\mathcal{V}}=\lambda_{i}\cdot\boldsymbol{e}_{i}
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Specielt er
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $_{\mathcal{V}}[L]_{\mathcal{V}}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
da diagonal med
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $i$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
'te diagonalindgang lig
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\lambda_{i}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Hvis omvendt
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $_{\mathcal{V}}[L]_{\mathcal{V}}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er diagonal med diagonalindgange
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\lambda_{i}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $i=1,2,\dots,n$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, så er
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
[L(\boldsymbol{v}_{i})]_{\mathcal{V}}=\lambda_{i}\cdot\boldsymbol{e}_{i}=\lambda_{i}\cdot[\boldsymbol{v}]_{\mathcal{V}}=[\lambda_{i}\cdot\boldsymbol{v}_{i}]_{\mathcal{V}}
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
og dermed gælder der at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
L(\boldsymbol{v}_{i})=\lambda_{i}\cdot\boldsymbol{v}_{i}\qquad for\,\,i=1,2,\dots,n
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Hvilket afslutter beviset at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{V}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
består af egenvektorer.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Dette kan også omskrives til matricer, men dette bevis er udeladt.
|
|
|
|
|
Det er Lemma 13.3.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Section
|
|
|
|
|
Diagonalisering
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Subsection
|
|
|
|
|
Definition 13.1 (Diagonaliserbar)
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Den lineære operator
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
kaldes
|
|
|
|
|
\series bold
|
|
|
|
|
diagonaliserbar
|
|
|
|
|
\series default
|
|
|
|
|
såfremt der eksisterer en basis
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
bestående af egenvektorer for L.
|
|
|
|
|
En matrix
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A\in\text{Mat}_{n}(\mathbb{F})$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
siges at være diagonaliserbar, hvis det tilsvarende er gældende for den
|
|
|
|
|
lineære operator
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L_{A}:\mathbb{F}^{n}\rightarrow\mathbb{F}^{n}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Subsection
|
|
|
|
|
Proposition 13.2 (Diagonalgøgl)
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Lad
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{V}=(\boldsymbol{v}_{1},\boldsymbol{v}_{2},\dots,\boldsymbol{v}_{n})$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
betegne en basis for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
Så er
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{V}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
en basis af egenvektorer for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
hvis og kun hvis matrixrepræsentationen
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $_{\mathcal{V}}[L]_{\mathcal{V}}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er diagonal.
|
|
|
|
|
I givet fald er den
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $i$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
'te diagonalindgang i
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $_{\mathcal{V}}[L]_{\mathcal{V}}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
lig egenværdien for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}_{i}.$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\series bold
|
|
|
|
|
Bevis
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Bemærk at den
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $i$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
'te søjle i
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $_{\mathcal{V}}[L]_{\mathcal{V}}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er lig koordinatvektoren
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $[L(\boldsymbol{v}_{i})]_{\mathcal{V}}\in\mathbb{F}^{n},$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
jf.
|
|
|
|
|
definition 8.9 (Definitionen for matrixrepræsentation).
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Hvis
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{V}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er en basis for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
bestående af egenvektorer for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, så vil den
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $i$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
'te søjle i
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $_{\mathcal{V}}[L]_{\mathcal{V}}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
være lig
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
[L(\boldsymbol{v}_{i})]_{\mathcal{V}}=[\lambda_{i}\cdot\boldsymbol{v}_{i}]_{\mathcal{V}}=\lambda_{i}\cdot[v]_{\mathcal{V}}=\lambda_{i}\cdot\boldsymbol{e}_{i}
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Specielt er
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $_{\mathcal{V}}[L]_{\mathcal{V}}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
da diagonal med
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $i$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
'te diagonalindgang lig
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\lambda_{i}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Hvis omvendt
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $_{\mathcal{V}}[L]_{\mathcal{V}}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er diagonal med diagonalindgange
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\lambda_{i}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $i=1,2,\dots,n$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, så er
|
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|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
[L(\boldsymbol{v}_{i})]_{\mathcal{V}}=\lambda_{i}\cdot\boldsymbol{e}_{i}=\lambda_{i}\cdot[\boldsymbol{v}]_{\mathcal{V}}=[\lambda_{i}\cdot\boldsymbol{v}_{i}]_{\mathcal{V}}
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\]
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\end_inset
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\end_layout
|
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\begin_layout Standard
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og dermed gælder der at
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula
|
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|
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|
\[
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L(\boldsymbol{v}_{i})=\lambda_{i}\cdot\boldsymbol{v}_{i}\qquad for\,\,i=1,2,\dots,n
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\]
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\end_inset
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Standard
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Hvilket afslutter beviset at
|
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\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{V}$
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\end_inset
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består af egenvektorer.
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Subsection
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Lemma 13.3 (Diagonalgøgl, nu med matricer)
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Standard
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Lad
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\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{A\in\text{Mat}_{n}(\mathbb{F}).}$
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\end_inset
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For en invertibel matrix
|
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\begin_inset Formula $S\in\text{Mat}_{n}(\mathbb{F})$
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\end_inset
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vil
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\begin_inset Formula
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\[
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D=S^{-1}AS
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\]
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\end_inset
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Standard
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være en diagonalmatrix hvis og kun hvis søjlerne i
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\begin_inset Formula $S$
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\end_inset
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udgør en basis for
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\begin_inset Formula $\mathbb{F}^{n}$
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\end_inset
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, bestående af egenvektorer for
|
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\begin_inset Formula $A$
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\end_inset
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.
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I givet fald vil egenværdien for den
|
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\begin_inset Formula $i$
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\end_inset
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'te søjle i
|
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\begin_inset Formula $S$
|
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\end_inset
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være identisk med en
|
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\begin_inset Formula $i$
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\end_inset
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'te diagonalindgang i
|
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\begin_inset Formula $D$
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\end_inset
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.
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Specielt er
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $A$
|
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\end_inset
|
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diagonaliserbar hvis og kun hvis
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $A$
|
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\end_inset
|
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er similær til en diagonalmatrix (similariteten følger af definition 12.16).
|
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\end_layout
|
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\begin_layout Standard
|
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\series bold
|
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|
Bevis
|
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\end_layout
|
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|
\begin_layout Standard
|
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|
|
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Lad
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Formula $S\in\text{Mat}_{n}(\mathbb{F})$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
|
|
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|
|
betegne en matrix med søjler
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Formula $(\boldsymbol{v}_{1},\boldsymbol{v}_{2},\dots,\boldsymbol{v}_{n})$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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.
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Jf .
|
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|
proposition 7.3 (Hvis
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
|
|
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|
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|
|
|
|
er en kvadratisk matrix med søjler
|
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|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{a}_{1},\dots,\boldsymbol{a}_{n}$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
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|
så er
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Formula $A$
|
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|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
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|
invertibel hvis og kun hvis
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $(\boldsymbol{a}_{1},\dots,\boldsymbol{a}_{n})$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er en basis for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathbb{F}^{n}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
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|
), såfremt
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Formula $S$
|
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|
|
\end_inset
|
|
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|
|
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|
|
|
|
er invertibel, så vil vi yderligere have, at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
S=_{\varepsilon}[\boxempty]_{\mathcal{V}}
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
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|
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|
|
\end_inset
|
|
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|
|
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|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
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|
|
hvilket, jf.
|
|
|
|
|
eksempel 8.8(A), betyder at, for hver søjle, siger
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $[\boldsymbol{v}_{i}]_{\varepsilon}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
og det altså oplagt er matricen der indholder egenvektorer.
|
|
|
|
|
Dermed er
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
S^{-1}AS=\,_{\varepsilon}[\boxempty]_{\mathcal{V}}^{-1}\cdot_{\varepsilon}[L_{A}]_{\varepsilon}\cdot{}_{\varepsilon}[\boxempty]_{\mathcal{V}}=_{\mathcal{V}}[L_{A}]_{\mathcal{V}}
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Jf.
|
|
|
|
|
korollar 8.13 og prop 8.7, der begger siger noget om at det er ok at kæde
|
|
|
|
|
transformationsmatricerne sammen.
|
|
|
|
|
Det endelige udsagn følger da af prop 13.2
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Section
|
|
|
|
|
Spektralsætningen
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Subsection
|
|
|
|
|
Sætning 14.18
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Lad
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L:V\rightarrow V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
betegne en selvadjungeret operator.
|
|
|
|
|
Så gælder der:
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
(1) Alle egenværdier for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er reele.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
(2) Såfremt
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
og
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er egenvektorer for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
hørende til forskellige egenværdier, så er
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
og
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
ortogonale.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\series bold
|
|
|
|
|
Bevis
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
(1)
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Lad
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
og
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{u}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
betegne egenvektorer for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
med egenværdier hhv.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\lambda$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
og
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mu$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
Så gælder der både, at
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\begin{align*}
|
|
|
|
|
\left\langle \boldsymbol{u},L(\boldsymbol{v})\right\rangle & =\left\langle \boldsymbol{u},\lambda\cdot\boldsymbol{v}\right\rangle \\
|
|
|
|
|
& =\overline{\lambda}\cdot\left\langle \boldsymbol{u},\boldsymbol{v}\right\rangle
|
|
|
|
|
\end{align*}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
men jf.
|
|
|
|
|
formel 14.4 (
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\left\langle L^{*}(\boldsymbol{u}),\boldsymbol{v}\right\rangle =\left\langle \boldsymbol{u},L(\boldsymbol{v})\right\rangle $
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
), har vi at:
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\begin{align*}
|
|
|
|
|
\left\langle \boldsymbol{u},L(\boldsymbol{v})\right\rangle & =\left\langle L^{*}(\boldsymbol{u}),\boldsymbol{v}\right\rangle \\
|
|
|
|
|
& =\left\langle L(\boldsymbol{u}),\boldsymbol{v}\right\rangle \qquad\text{Da den er selvadjungeret}\\
|
|
|
|
|
& =\left\langle \mu\cdot\text{\boldsymbol{u},\boldsymbol{v}}\right\rangle \\
|
|
|
|
|
& =\mu\cdot\left\langle u,\boldsymbol{v}\right\rangle
|
|
|
|
|
\end{align*}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
I tilfældet hvor
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\text{\boldsymbol{v}=\boldsymbol{u}}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, og dermed
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\lambda=\mu$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, betyder de to ovenstående resultater, at:
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
\overline{\lambda}\cdot\left\langle \boldsymbol{v},\boldsymbol{v}\right\rangle =\lambda\cdot\left\langle \boldsymbol{v},\boldsymbol{v}\right\rangle
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Hvilket kun er muligt når
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\overline{\lambda}=\lambda$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, idet
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er en egenvektor og dermed ikke kan være 0.
|
|
|
|
|
Dette medfører at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\lambda$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
må være et reelt tal.
|
|
|
|
|
Dette er ikke relevant for andre tilfælde, end hvor de to egenvektorer
|
|
|
|
|
er ens, da man altid vil kunne lave samme argument, hvis blot man gør det
|
|
|
|
|
her for hver egenvektor.
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
(2)
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Betragt nu tilfældet hvor
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{u=w},$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er en egenvektor med egenværdi
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mu\ne\lambda$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
Da implicerer de to formler fra (1) og resultatet af (1) (at alle egenværdier
|
|
|
|
|
er reele), at
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
\lambda\cdot\left\langle \boldsymbol{w},\boldsymbol{v}\right\rangle =\mu\cdot\left\langle \boldsymbol{w},\boldsymbol{v}\right\rangle
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Hvor følgende kan udledes
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
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(\lambda-\mu)\cdot\left\langle \boldsymbol{w},\boldsymbol{v}\right\rangle =0
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\]
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\end_inset
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Standard
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Hvilket kun er muligt hvis
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\begin_inset Formula
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\[
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\left\langle \boldsymbol{w},\boldsymbol{v}\right\rangle =0
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\]
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\end_inset
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Standard
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Hvorefter det kan konkluderes at
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\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}$
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\end_inset
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og
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\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w}$
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\end_inset
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er ortogonale på hinanden.
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Subsection
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Sætning 14.20 (Spektralsætningen)
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Standard
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Lad
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\begin_inset Formula $L:V\rightarrow V$
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\end_inset
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betegne en selvadjungerende operator.
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Så eksisterer der en ortonormal basis for
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\begin_inset Formula $V$
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\end_inset
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bestående af egenvektorer for
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\begin_inset Formula $L$
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\end_inset
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med reele egenværdier.
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Specielt er
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\begin_inset Formula $L$
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\end_inset
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ortonormal diagonaliserbar.
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Standard
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\series bold
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Bevis
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Standard
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Per definition 14.18, vides der allerede at alle egenværdier for
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\begin_inset Formula $L$
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\end_inset
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er reele, derfor skal der blot vises at
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\begin_inset Formula $V$
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\end_inset
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har en ortonormal basis bestående af egenvektorer for
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\begin_inset Formula $L$
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\end_inset
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.
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Dette gøres via et induktion i
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\begin_inset Formula $n=\text{Dim}(V)$
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\end_inset
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.
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Standard
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Hvis
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\begin_inset Formula $\text{Dim}(V)=1$
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\end_inset
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, så lader vi
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\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{V}=(\boldsymbol{v})$
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\end_inset
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betegne en ortonormal basis for
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\begin_inset Formula $V$
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\end_inset
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.
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I givet fald, er
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\begin_inset Formula $L(\boldsymbol{v})\in\text{Span}(\boldsymbol{v})$
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\end_inset
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og dermed gælder
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $L(\boldsymbol{v})=\lambda\cdot\boldsymbol{v}$
|
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\end_inset
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oplagt.
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Dermed er
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}$
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\end_inset
|
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en egenvektor for
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $L$
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\end_inset
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.
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\end_layout
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\begin_layout Standard
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Antag nu at
|
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\begin_inset Formula $n=\text{Dim}(V)>1$
|
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\end_inset
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|
og at resultatet er vist for selvadjungerende operatorer på vektorrum af
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dimension
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|
\begin_inset Formula $n-1$
|
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\end_inset
|
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.
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Vælg da, jf.
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|
sætning 14.19, der siger at alle selvadjungerende operatorer har en reel
|
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|
|
egenværdi og dermed en egenvektor, en egenvektor
|
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
for
|
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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og sæt
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $W=\text{Span}(\boldsymbol{v})^{\perp}.$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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Idet
|
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|
\begin_inset Formula $L=L^{*}$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
, da
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L$
|
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|
\end_inset
|
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|
er selvadjungerende, så viser Lemma 14.10 (Lad L være en lineær operator
|
|
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|
|
på et indre produkt rum V af
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\text{Dim}(V)>0$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
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|
over
|
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathbb{K},$
|
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|
|
|
\end_inset
|
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|
|
lad da
|
|
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|
|
\begin_inset Formula $W$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
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|
være et underrum af
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
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|
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|
|
, der er stabilt overfor
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L^{*}.$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
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|
|
Så vil
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $W^{\perp}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
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|
|
være stabilt overfor
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
), at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $W$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er stabilt overfor
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
Den inducerede operator
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L_{W}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
på
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $W$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er ydermere selvadjungeret, pr.
|
|
|
|
|
eksempel 14.15(B) (der konkluderer at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L_{W}:W\rightarrow W$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er selvadjungeret).
|
|
|
|
|
Idet
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\text{Dim}(v)=n-1$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, jf.
|
|
|
|
|
korollar 10.21 (der siger at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\text{Dim}(V)=\text{Dim}(W)+\text{Dim}(W)^{\perp},$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
hvor, i vores tilfælde,
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\text{Dim}(W)=1$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, da det kun er elementet
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, så
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\text{Dim}(W)^{\perp}=\text{Dim}(V)-1$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
Note, det nævnte
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $W$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
her, er ikke det
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $W$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
brugt i det udestående bevis), så implicerer induktionsantagelsen, at W
|
|
|
|
|
har en ortonormal base
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W}=(\boldsymbol{w}_{1},\boldsymbol{w}_{2},\dots,\boldsymbol{w}_{n-1}),$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
bestående af egenvektorer for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L_{W}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
(note,
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L_{W}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
betyder blot at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er stabilt overfor W, således at tager man et element fra W, bruger den
|
|
|
|
|
lineære operator, så ender man indenfor W igen), og dermed for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L.$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Sæt nu
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula
|
|
|
|
|
\[
|
|
|
|
|
\boldsymbol{w}_{n}=\frac{1}{\left\Vert \boldsymbol{v}\right\Vert }\cdot\boldsymbol{v}
|
|
|
|
|
\]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_layout Standard
|
|
|
|
|
Så er elementerne
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{V}=(\boldsymbol{w}_{1},\boldsymbol{w}_{2},\dots,\boldsymbol{w}_{n})$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
en ortonormal mængde (da de er normaliserede),
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w}_{1},\boldsymbol{w}_{2},\dots,\boldsymbol{w}_{n-1}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er ortonormale pr.
|
|
|
|
|
valg af
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{W}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
og
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
(og dermed
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w}_{n})$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
er ortogonal på
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{w}_{1},\boldsymbol{w}_{2},\dots,\boldsymbol{w}_{n-1}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, per valg af W, da
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $W=\text{Span}(\boldsymbol{v})^{\perp}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
Specielt er
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\mathcal{V}$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
lineært uafhængig, da den består af ortogonale vektorer, og dermed er det
|
|
|
|
|
en basis for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
Til sidst bemærkes det, at
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $V$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
består af egenvektorer for
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $L$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
, per antagelse af de
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $n-1$
|
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
2017-06-10 10:23:23 +00:00
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-10 16:32:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
elementer og tilsidst på grund af indsættelsen af det sidste
|
|
|
|
|
\begin_inset Formula $\boldsymbol{v}.$
|
2017-06-10 10:23:23 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_inset
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\end_layout
|
|
|
|
|
|
2017-06-09 08:59:25 +00:00
|
|
|
|
\end_body
|
|
|
|
|
\end_document
|